<p>The Jhelum River, Vitasta  Vyeth, is a river of northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. It is the westernmost of the five rivers of Punjab, and passes through Jhelum District. It is a tributary of the Chenab River and has a total length of about 725 km.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Anjum Sultan Shahbaz recorded some stories of the name Jhelum in his book Tareekh-e-Jhelum as:</p><br>
<p>However, some writers believe that when "Dara-e-Azam" reached a certain place on the river bank after winning many battles, he fixed his flag at that place and called it "Ja-e-Alam" which means "Place of the Flag". With the passage of time it became Jhelum from "Ja-e-Alam".</p><br>
<p>The Sanskrit name of this river is Vitasta. The river&#39;s name is derived from the mythological incident regarding the origin of the river as explained in Nilamata Purana. Goddess Parvati was requested by sage Kasyapa to come to Kashmir for purification of the land from evil practices and impurities of Pisachas living there. Goddess Parvati then assumed the form of a river in the Nether World. Then Lord Shiva made a stroke with his spear near the abode of Nila (Verinag Spring). By that stroke of the spear, Goddess Parvati came out of the Nether World. Shiva himself named her as Vitasta. He had excavated with the spear a ditch measuring one Vitasti (a particular measure of length defined either as a long span between the extended thumb and little finger, or as the distance between the wrist and the tip of the fingers, and said to be about 9 inches), through which the river - gone to the Nether World - had come out, so she was given the name Vitasta by him.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The river Jhelum is called Vitastā in the Rigveda and Hydaspes by the ancient Greeks. The Vitasta (वितस्ता, fem., also, Vetastā) is mentioned as one of the major rivers by the holy scriptures — the Rigveda. It has been speculated that the Vitastā must have been one of the seven rivers (sapta-sindhu) mentioned so many times in the Rigveda. The name survives in the Kashmiri name for this river as Vyeth. According to the major religious work Srimad Bhagavatam, the Vitastā is one of the many transcendental rivers flowing through land of Bharata, or ancient India.</p><br>
<p>The river was regarded as a god by the ancient Greeks, as were most mountains and streams; the poet Nonnus in the Dionysiaca (section 26, line 350) makes the Hydaspes a titan-descended god, the son of the sea-god Thaumas and the cloud-goddess Elektra. He was the brother of Iris, the goddess of the rainbow, and half-brother to the Harpies, the snatching winds. Since the river is in a country foreign to the ancient Greeks, it is not clear whether they named the river after the god, or whether the god Hydaspes was named after the river.</p><br>
<p>Alexander the Great and his army crossed the Jhelum in BC 326 at the Battle of the Hydaspes River where he defeated the Indian king, Porus. According to Arrian (Anabasis, 29), he built a city "on the spot whence he started to cross the river Hydaspes", which he named Bukephala (or Bucephala) to honour his famous horse Bukephalus or Bucephalus which was buried in Jalalpur Sharif. It is thought that ancient Bukephala was near the site of modern Jhelum City. According to a historian of Gujrat district, Mansoor Behzad Butt, Bukephalus was buried in Jalalpur Sharif, but the people of Mandi Bahauddin, a district close to Jehlum, believed that their tehsil Phalia was named after Bucephalus, Alexander&#39;s dead horse. They say that the name Phalia was the distortion of the word Bucephala. The waters of the Jhelum are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty. India is working on a hydropower project on a tributary of Jhelum river to establish first-use rights on the river water over Pakistan as per the Indus waters Treaty.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The river Jhelum rises from Verinag Spring situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. Its joined by its tributaries Lidder River at Khannabal and Sind River at Shadipora in Kashmir Valley. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. The Neelum River, the largest tributary of the Jhelum, joins it, at Domel Muzaffarabad, as does the next largest, the Kunhar River of the Kaghan valley. It also connects with rest of Pakistan and Pakistani Kashmir on Kohala Bridge east of Circle Bakote. It is then joined by the Poonch river, and flows into the Mangla Dam reservoir in the district of Mirpur. The Jhelum enters the Punjab in the Jhelum District. From there, it flows through the plains of Pakistans Punjab, forming the boundary between the Chaj and Sindh Sagar Doabs. It ends in a confluence with the Chenab at Trimmu in District Jhang. The Chenab merges with the Sutlej to form the Panjnad River which joins the Indus River at Mithankot.</p><br>
<h2>Dams and barrages</h2><br>
<p>Water control structures are being built as a result of the Indus Basin Project, including the following:</p><br>
<p>Mangla Dam, completed in 1967, is one of the largest earthfill dams in the world, with a storage capacity of 5,900,000 acre.ft</p><br>
<p>Rasul Barrage, constructed in 1967, has a maximum flow of 850,000 ft³/s (24,000 m³/s).</p><br>
<p>Trimmu Barrage, constructed in 1939 some 90 km from Mari Shah Sakhira town, at the confluence with the Chenab, has maximum discharge capacity of 645,000 ft³/s (18,000 m³/s).</p><br>
<p>Haranpur (Victoria Bridge) Constructed in 1933 Approximate 5 km from Malakwal near Chak Nizam Village. Its length is 1 km mainly used by Pakistan Railways but there is a passage for light vehicles, motorcycles, cycles and pedestrians at one side.</p><br>
<h2>Canals</h2><br>
<p>The Upper Jhelum Canal runs from Mangla Dam to the Chenab.</p><br>
<p>The Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal runs from the Rasul Barrage to the Chenab.</p><br>
<p>The Chashma-Jhelum Link Canal runs from the Chashma Barrage on the Indus River to the Jhelum river downstream of Rasul Barrage. This is 40 km from Mari Shah Sakhira town.</p><br>
<p>Government House of British Columbia is the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia, as well as that in Victoria of the Canadian monarch, and has casually been described as "the Ceremonial Home of all British Columbians." It stands in the provincial capital on a 14.6 hectare estate at 1401 Rockland Avenue; while the equivalent building in many countries has a prominent, central place in the capital, the site of British Columbia&#39;s Government House is relatively unobtrusive within Victoria, giving it more the character of a private home.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first building in the area used specifically as a governors residence was Cary Castle, built in 1860 by George Hunter Cary and purchased five years later by the British Crown for use as a seat for the Governor of Vancouver Island, Arthur Kennedy being the first occupant. Following the 1866 merger of the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island, the mainland colonys Government House in New Westminster was abandoned to other uses and Cary Castle became the official residence of the new united colony&#39;s Governor and, from 1871 onwards, that of the provincial lieutenant governor.</p><br>
<p>The mansion and its contents were destroyed by fire in May 1899, with a replacement immediately built to designs by Francis Rattenbury and Samuel Maclure. Completed in 1903, this house was used for the first time by the reigning monarch of Canada when King George VI, accompanied by his wife, Queen Elizabeth, arrived in 1939 as part of his cross-Canada tour that year. However, that incarnation of Government House also burnt down when it caught fire on 15 April 1957; the current Government House was begun soon after and completed on 19 May, two years later by John Laing & Sons. The new home was furnished with pieces bought in the United Kingdom by Lieutenant Governor Frank Mackenzie Ross and then donated to the Crown following his departure from office, as well as other items donated by various British Columbians.</p><br>
<p>By 2002, through the efforts of Lieutenant Governor Iona Campagnolo, Government House and its surrounding gardens were designated as a National Historic Site of Canada and the acknowledging plaque was unveiled by Campagnolo on 2 October of that year.</p><br>
<h2>Ownership and use</h2><br>
<p>Government House is where members of the Canadian Royal Family and visiting foreign dignitaries are greeted and often stay while in Victoria. It is also where numerous royal and viceroyal events take place, such as the bestowing of provincial awards or inductions into the Order of British Columbia, as well as luncheons, dinners, receptions, and speaking engagements. Among many public receptions and garden parties held annually, the lieutenant governor&#39;s New Years Day levée remains a popular and well-attended highlight of the holiday season in Victoria. It is also at the royal residence that the lieutenant governor will drop the writs of election, swear-in new members of the Executive Council, and hold audience with her premier.</p><br>
<p>The property is owned by the Queen in Right of British Columbia; as with other Crown property, Government House is held in trust for future rulers and cannot be sold by the monarch except by her lieutenant governor with the proper advice and consent from the Executive Council of British Columbia. The management of the residence is, however, overseen by the British Columbia Government House Foundation, a charitable, non-profit organisation that was in 1987 established by Lieutenant Governor Robert Gordon Rogers, along with his Council at the time. The foundation is mandated to oversee the maintenance of Government House&#39;s property and all the structures on it; the acquisition, either on loan or permanently, of British Columbia artworks for display in the royal residence; the management of official gifts to the lieutenant governor or monarch in right of British Columbia; and public awareness of Government House, its history, and value. Besides the four honorary trustees—the lieutenant governor, the viceregal consort, the Chief Justice of British Columbia, and the Private Secretary to the Lieutenant Governor—the foundation also has trustees elected for three-year terms from artistic, horticultural, historical, and legal segments of provincial society.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and interiors</h2><br>
<p>The present Government House is a T-shaped, four level (including the basement) building of steel frame construction clad in a Modern Tudor revival envelope. The walls are of rusticated blue, grey, and pink British Columbia granite with Haddington Island stone trim, and the roof, which is two storeys high in itself, has steeply pitched, chalet-style gables and numerous dormer windows. A rendition of the Royal Arms of British Columbia is visible in the gable above the Ballroom&#39;s south facing bow window, which commands a view over Ross Bay and the lower part of the Fairfield neighbourhood, across the Strait of Juan de Fuca, to the Olympic Mountains in Washington state.</p><br>
<p>The main entrance is in the centre of the north facade, beneath the original Tudor Revival porte cochère of the previous Government House, which had been inspired by Rattenburys own Hatley Castle. Behind this is the main entrance hall, the walls lined with oak panelling hung with painted portraits of former Lieutenant Governors of British Columbia, some of the chatelaines of Government House (the viceroys wife), and large portraits of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Rising to the second floor is a large staircase along which are renderings of the escutcheons of various members of the Royal Family and Governors General of Canada who have resided at Government House. The room is capped by a cathedral ceiling and the three storey high north wall is dominated by the Rogers Window, a stained glass creation commissioned by viceregal consort Jane Rogers to commemorate British Columbia&#39;s heritage as a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, the contribution of viceroys and their spouses since the foundation of the Colony of Vancouver Island, and the place of Government House in provincial life. The window, unveiled on 2 May 1990, shows various heraldic devices of the monarch in right of the province and the monarch in right of Canada, natural emblems of British Columbia, and historical artefacts alluding to provincial industry and native heritage.</p><br>
<p>On axis with the front entrance is the largest room in Government House, the ballroom, which occupies the entire south wing of the building. It rises 12 m past an encircling balcony to a cathedral ceiling, from which hangs three Swiss cut crystal chandeliers that match the multiple wall sconces. Artwork includes the series of Millennium Windows, completed in 2006, that run along each side of the ballroom, and, reflecting the view from the rooms south window, is a textile piece entitled Reflections at Government House, by Carol Sabiston. Also for entertaining purposes are the main dining room, modelled after the original Rattenbury and Maclure design with its fir panelling and containing a dining suite purchased in Scotland, and the drawing room, which also evokes the previous incarnation of the room. Available for smaller events are the little drawing room, sometimes called the French Drawing Room because of its furnishings of French origin, including a Sèvres clock and vases, and two rooms named for the architects of the second Government House: the Maclure room, done in an Arts and Crafts style with handcrafted furniture and a copper foil ceiling, and the Rattenbury room, used as a smaller dining room on the mansions second floor and containing a table and chairs from the eponymous architect&#39;s personal collection, on loan from the Royal British Columbia Museum. The mansion also holds numerous art pieces in the Crown collection, including works by British Columbia First Nations artists especially commissioned by the lieutenant governor.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>Government House&#39;s 14.6 hectare property is a publicly accessible area tended by volunteers in the Friends of Government House Gardens Society, and are used frequently by the surrounding community, save for when security otherwise necessitates. The site is divided into numerous different zones according to plant life and/or garden style; for instance, the British Columbia native plant garden contains species unique to the province, and the Cottage Garden is arranged in an informal style with a mixture of ornamental and edible plants. There are also gardens to supply cut flowers, herbs, and an orchard with apple, plum, and quince trees; a rock garden tended by the Heather Society of Victoria; iris, lily, rhododendron, and rose gardens (including a formal Victorian rose garden based on the plan of that at Warwick Castle in England); and water features such as the fountain pond and the duck pond. There is also a unique 8.9 hectare Garry Oak ecosystem.</p><br>
<p>Government House of Manitoba is the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba, as well as that in Winnipeg of the Canadian monarch. It stands in the provincial capital, on the grounds of the Manitoba Legislative Building, at 10 Kennedy Street; unlike other provincial Government Houses in Canada, this gives Manitoba&#39;s royal residence a prominent urban setting, though it is surrounded by gardens.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the foundation of Manitoba, the Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories occupied a designated residence within the walls of Upper Fort Garry; a house that was, at one point, used by Louis Riel as president of the provisional government of Red River. After the new province joined Confederation on 15 July 1870, a structure five kilometres outside of Winnipeg was leased for use as the lieutenant governor&#39;s residence, known as Silver Heights, but it was found unsuitable, given its size and distance from the capital. Instead, the lieutenant governor remained at Upper Fort Gary until the present Government House was completed.</p><br>
<p>The house there, however, was in constant need of repair; after $10,000 was spent on the structure in 1873, Alexander Morris wrote to the federal Minister of Public Works: "You can fancy the state of the house when I tell you there was five feet of water in the cellar till middle of July. Year before till middle of August..." Further, as the population of the province was increasing, the need for public buildings became more pressing, and a delegation travelled to Ottawa to discuss with the Queen&#39;s Privy Council for Canada the matter of parliament allocating funds for a new legislative assembly and Government House for Manitoba. This was approved, and Thomas Seaton Scott, the Dominion architect, immediately set about drawing up plans for the structures.</p><br>
<p>The current provincial royal residence was constructed in 1883, at a cost to the federal Crown of $23,995. Their daughter, Queen Elizabeth II, her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and each of their children have also stayed at Government House over the years.</p><br>
<p>The architect Frank Worthington Simon included in his plans for the Manitoba Legislative Building a new Government House, to be constructed on the bank of the Assiniboine River, opposite the parliament. This plan never came to fruition, however, and the Victorian Government House was adapted over time to suit the lieutenant governor&#39;s changing needs. In 1978, the mansion was designated as a historical structure by the Manitoba Heritage Council and in 1999, at the initiative of Shirley Liba, wife of Lieutenant Governor Peter Liba, the house underwent a major renovation, in which many of the original features of the mansion were uncovered and restored.</p><br>
<h2>Use</h2><br>
<p>Government House, owned by the Queen in Right of Manitoba, is where members of the Canadian Royal Family and visiting foreign dignitaries are greeted and often stay while in Winnipeg. It is also where numerous royal and viceroyal events take place, such as the bestowing of provincial awards or inductions into the Order of Manitoba, as well as luncheons, dinners, receptions, and speaking engagements. It is also at the royal residence that the lieutenant governor will drop the writs of election and swear-in new members of the Executive Council. The viceroy&#39;s office is located at the Legislative Building, behind Government House; it is there that legislation is given Royal Assent and the lieutenant governor meets with his premier.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and interiors</h2><br>
<p>Manitoba&#39;s Government house is a structure of solid masonry walls and timber floor framing, the original block being 18.3 m square and four storeys in height, counting the basement level, covering a total of approximately 20,000 ft&sup2, including the tower. The volume and its facade composition was at first symmetrical along an east-west axis through the centre of the building, though this arrangement was later altered by the addition of new wings; this is clad in brick, trimmed with cut stone and ornate wood cornices at the roof line, and iron cresting tops the tower. The overall design was described in 1883 as "Italian, modified to suit the requirements of the climate," though the same year an early visitor noted in the guest book: "It is an unpretending looking structure, of nondescript architecture and with no outside ornamentation." Similarly, in 1953, the provincial architect said that Government House was the one "jarring note" on the grounds of the Legislative Building. By later in the 20th century, however, provincial architects stated the house is "Victorian architecture with French influence from the Second Napoleonic Empire with the flat steep-sided Mansard roof".</p><br>
<p>When first built, the ground floor of Government House held a suite of interconnected rooms that, opened to one another, formed a suite 29 m long and 6.1 m wide. Altogether, these included, in a counter-clockwise array around the central stair hall, the library, immediately to the right of the foyer, the breakfast room, the drawing room, the dining room, a serving room, and the viceroys office at the left of the foyer. Later, in 1901, a veranda was built around the north-east corner of the house, and a ballroom was added to the rear, both at the personal expense of Lieutenant Governor Daniel Hunter McMillan. Then, in 1908, the front porch was enclosed in a robust structure and a palm room and adjoining conservatory were added off the dining room. Until 1946, the kitchens were in the basement and serving took place via a dumbwaiter; that year a new kitchen was built into another extension off the rear of the mansion. Eventually what had been the palm room was made into an extension of the dining room and, in 1953, the original serving room was sacrificed in favour of a cloak room and powder room, as well as an elevator in place of the dumbwaiter. The ballroom was demolished in 1960 to make way for the current assembly room, which was, for catering purposes, linked to the kitchen by a new serving room, and three years following, the conservatory was pulled down and replaced with a new sun room, potting room, and greenhouse, as well as a three car garage. Today, the lieutenant governors office has been moved to the Legislative Building and the room it once occupied made into a sitting room for the viceroy&#39;s aides-de-camp. The former library, breakfast room, and drawing room have all been turned into a series of connected salons for official entertaining.</p><br>
<p>Reached by a staircase of oak treads, newels, balusters, and handrail with pine risers, the second floor consisted in 1880 of six bedrooms, two dressing rooms, a bath room, a toilet, and a storage closet. Two of the bedrooms were connected by large sliding doors, as with the library and breakfast room beneath; during large parties, these doors would be pulled back and the combined bedrooms would be used for expanded entertainment space. Over time, the spaces on this level were altered and some of the bedrooms were divided into private en suite bathrooms. The royal bedroom is reserved for use by the sovereign and other Royal Family members when they are in Winnipeg, and the gold room accommodates royal support staff or other royals if the monarch is occupying the royal bedroom. Also on this floor is the viceregal suite, consisting of a master bedroom, the lieutenant governor&#39;s private office, and a library and living room.</p><br>
<p>The basement of Government House is divided into several sections; originally it held living quarters for the domestic staff—a kitchen and bedrooms—as well as the main kitchen for the state dining room on the ground floor. Presently, it contains storage and laundry facilities. The attic floor was divided into nine bedrooms, which has been reduced to four bedrooms with the addition of two bathrooms, a sitting room, and a three and one-half room suite for the resident housekeeper. From this floor one can also access the tower, from which the lieutenant governor&#39;s standard is flown when he or she is in residence.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>Manitobas Government House is surrounded on three sides by manicured gardens; the fourth side—the rear of the building—faces directly onto the parking lot of the Legislative Building. In 2010, part of the grounds were set aside and dedicated as the Queen Elizabeth II Gardens by the Queen herself on 3 July that year, the event marked by the planting of an Amber Jubilee Ninebark shrub, the species having been created specifically for Elizabeths Diamond Jubilee in 2012. At the same time, a statue of The Queen that had been created in 1970 by Leo Mol and installed outside the Manitoba Centennial Centre was moved to the eponymous gardens and unveiled by her.</p><br>
<p>Lenin Volga–Don Shipping Canal  is a canal which connects the Volga River and the Don River at their closest points. Opened in 1952, the length of the waterway is 101 km, 45 km through rivers and reservoirs.</p><br>
<p>The canal forms a part of the Unified Deep Water System of European Russia. Together with the lower Volga and the lower Don, the Volga–Don Canal provides the most direct navigable connection between the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Azov, the Black Sea, and thus the world&#39;s oceans.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As the lower course of the Don approaches the lower course of the Volga near today&#39;s Volgograd, the idea of connecting the two rivers by an artificial waterway has a long history. The first recorded canal work was done by the Ottoman Turks in 1569.</p><br>
<p>After capturing Azov in 1696, Peter the Great decided to build the canal, but, because of a lack of resources and other problems, this attempt was abandoned in 1701 without success. In 1701, he initiated a second attempt (the so-called Ivanovsky Canal at Yepifan) under the administration of Knyaz Matvey Gagarin. Instead of connecting the lower course of the Don with the lower course of the Volga near the present canal, the Ivanovsky Canal connected the upper course of the Don in what is now Tula Oblast. Between 1702 and 1707, twenty-four locks were constructed, and, in 1707, about 300 ships passed the canal under remarkably difficult navigation conditions. In 1709 due to financial difficulties caused by the Great Northern War, the project was halted. In 1711, under terms of the Treaty of the Pruth, Russia left Azov and Peter the Great lost all interest in the canal, which was abandoned and fell into ruin. Over time, other projects for connecting the two rivers were proposed, but none was attempted.</p><br>
<p>The actual construction of today&#39;s Volga–Don Canal, designed by Sergey Zhuk&#39;s Hydroproject Institute, began prior to the Second World War, which would interrupt the process. Construction works continued from 1948 to 1952; navigation was opened 1 June 1952. The canal and its facilities were built by about 900,000 workers including some 100,000 German POWs and 100,000 gulag prisoners. A day spent at the construction yard was counted as three days in prison, which spurred prisoners to work. Several convicts were even awarded with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour upon their release.</p><br>
<p>Upon completion, the Volga–Don Canal became an important link of the Unified Deep Water Transportation System of the European part of the USSR.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>The canal starts at the Sarepta backwater on the Volga River (south of Volgograd; Lock No. 1 and the gateway arch are at {{coord|48|31|10|N|44|33|10|E|name=start}}) and ends in the Tsimlyansk Reservoir of the Don River at the town of Kalach-na-Donu. The canal has nine one-chamber canal locks on the Volga slope, which can raise ships 88 m, and four canal locks of the same kind on the Don slope, which can lower ships 44 m. The overall dimensions of the canal locks are smaller than those on the Volga River, however they can pass ships of up to 5,000 tonnes cargo capacity. The smallest locks are 145 m long, 17 m wide, and 3.6 m deep. Maximum allowed vessel size is 140 m long, 16.6 m wide and 3.5 m deep (the Volgo–Don Max Class).</p><br>
<p>The Volga–Don Canal is filled from the Don river; three powerful pumping stations maintain water levels. Water is also taken from the canal and used for irrigation.</p><br>
<p>Types of cargo transported from the Don region to the Volga region include coal from Donetsk, Ukraine, minerals, building materials, and grain. Cargoes from the Volga to the Don include lumber, pyrites, and petroleum products (carried mostly by Volgotanker boats). Tourist ships travel in both directions.</p><br>
<p>The Volga–Don Canal, together with the Tsimlyansky water-engineering system (chief architect Leonid Polyakov), form part of an architectural ensemble dedicated to the battles for Tsaritsyn during the Russian Civil War and for Stalingrad during the German-Soviet War. The Russian classical composer Sergei Prokofiev wrote the tone poem The Meeting of the Volga and the Don to celebrate its completion.</p><br>
<p>According to the Maritime Board (Morskaya Kollegiya) of the Russian Government, 10.9 million tonnes of cargo were carried over the Volga–Don Canal in 2004.</p><br>
<p>An alternate (not necessarily comparable) source claims 8.05 million tonnes of cargo was transported through the canal in total in 2006. Most of the cargo was moved from the east to the west: namely, 7.20 million tonnes were transported through the canal from the Volga/Caspian basin to the Don/Sea of Azov/Black Sea basin, and only 0.85 million tonnes in the opposite direction. Just over half of all cargo was oil or oil products (4.14 million tonnes), predominantly shipped from the Caspian region.</p><br>
<p>It was reported in 2007 that in the first 55 years of the canal&#39;s operations 450,000 vessels had passed through carrying 336 million tonnes of cargo. Recent cargo volume stood at 12 million tonnes a year.http://transportrussia.ru/2007-07-12/reaver/evrazia.html «Водный мир» для Евразии ("Eurasia&#39;s &#39;Water World&#39;"), Transport Rossii, No. 28 (472) 12 July 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Future</h2><br>
<p>In the 1980s, construction started on a second canal between the Volga and the Don. The new canal, dubbed Volga–Don 2 (Волго-Дон 2, Volgo–Don 2; {{coord|48|56|37|N|44|30|25|E|type:waterbody_region:RU|name=Volgo-Don 2 start}}) would start from the township of Yerzovka on the Volgograd Reservoir, north (upstream) of the Volga Dam, as opposed to the existing Volga–Don Canal, which starts south (downstream) of the dam. This canal would reduce the number of locks that ships coming from the Volgograd Reservoir – or from any other Volga or Kama port farther north – would have to traverse on their way to the Don. The project was abruptly canceled on 1 August 1990 due to financial considerations, although by that time more than 40 percent of allocated funds had already been spent. Since then most of the stone and metal in the abandoned canal and its locks has been looted.</p><br>
<p>As of 2007–2008, Russian authorities are considering two options for increasing the throughput of navigable waterways between the Caspian basin and the Black Sea. One option, for which the name "Volga–Don 2" has been reused, is to build a second parallel channel ("second thread") of the Volga–Don Canal, equipped with larger locks 300 m long. This plan would allow for an increase in the canal&#39;s annual cargo throughput from 16.5 million tonnes to 30 million tonnes. The other option, which seems to have more support from Kazakhstan (who would be either canal&#39;s major customer), is to build the so-called Eurasia Canal along a more southerly route in the Kuma–Manych Depression, some sections of which currently form part of the much shallower Manych Ship Canal. Although the second option would require digging a longer canal than Volga–Don, and would be of less use to vessels coming from the Volga, it would provide a more direct connection between the Caspian and the Sea of Azov. The Eurasia Canal would also require fewer locks than the Volga–Don, as elevations in the Kuma–Manych Depression are lower than the Volga–Don area.</p><br>
<p>Sageika  is a village and a community in the municipal unit of Movri, western Achaea, Greece. The population of the village is about 1000. It is located in the plains between the Movri hills and the Gulf of Patras. It is 3 km west of Kareika, 6 km east of Metochi, 9 km southwest of Kato Achaia and 28 km southwest of Patras. The Greek National Road 9  runs through the village.</p><br>
<p>Sageika was the seat of the municipality of Movri, named for the Movri hills south of the village. The municipality was created under the Kapodistrias reform in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The community Sageika consists of the following villages (population in 2011):</p><br>
<p>Sageika, pop. 1038</p><br>
<p>Apostoloi, pop. 88</p><br>
<p>Bouteika, pop. 149</p><br>
<p>Vrachneika, pop. 13</p><br>
<p>Gerouseika, pop. 557</p><br>
<p>Stathmos, pop. 23</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Redonda is an uninhabited Caribbean island which is politically part of Antigua and Barbuda, in the Leeward Islands, West Indies. The island is about 1 mi long, 0.3 mi wide, and is 971 ft high at its highest point.</p><br>
<p>This small island lies between the islands of Nevis and Montserrat, 56.2 km southwest of Antigua. Redonda is closer to Montserrat than to any other island; it is located at 22.5 km northwest of Montserrat, and 32 km southeast of Nevis.</p><br>
<p>Redonda is home to vast numbers of sea birds, and the island was an important source of guano before artificial fertilizers started to be mass-produced. Guano-mining operations started in the 1860s and ceased after the start of World War I. During these mining operations a few buildings and other installations were put in place on the island, and some physical remnants of that phase in its history are still visible.</p><br>
<p>The island was named by Columbus in 1493. "Redonda" is the female form of the Spanish language adjective meaning "round". "Santa Maria de la Redonda" is a church in Seville, Spain, named for the Virgin Mary.</p><br>
<p>The island of Redonda became part of Antigua and Barbuda in 1967.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>At a distance, Redonda appears as if it were one very large rock. It is the remnant of an ancient extinct volcano. The land rises extremely steeply from sea level, mostly as sheer cliffs, especially on the leeward (west) side of the island. At the top of the island there is an area of grassland that slopes quite steeply to the east. There is no source of fresh water other than rain.</p><br>
<p>Judging by the name he gave the island, to Columbus the island appeared to be rounded, at least in profile. In reality the island is long and narrow, although it rises steeply to a height of almost 1,000 feet. The actual land area of the island is, however, hard to estimate because of the extreme steepness of the slopes, but it is calculated to be somewhere between 1.6 km&sup2; and 2.6 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Redonda is uninhabited, except by seabirds and a herd of feral goats that manage to survive on the poor grazing on top of the island. The steepness of the surface, the lack of a safe place to land a boat, and the lack of any freshwater source other than rainfall makes the island inhospitable to humans.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Christopher Columbus discovered Redonda in 1493 on his second journey. He claimed it for the Spanish crown, but did not land there. He named the island Santa María de la Redonda, meaning Saint Mary of the Round, reflecting the island&#39;s apparent profile when viewed from the side. In the 1860s, the island became a British possession.</p><br>
<p>During the decades after the 1860s, the rich guano (phosphine oxide) deposits of Redonda were mined for fertiliser, with an annual yield of up to 7,000 tons. Only during this time was the island inhabited, by workers. The population was 120 in 1901. During the First World War 1914, the mining operations ceased, and the workers left the island, which has remained uninhabited since then. Two stone huts still stand from the time when the island was occupied. Although the closest island to Redonda is Montserrat, and the second closest is Nevis, Redonda became a dependency of the more distant Antigua, now part of Antigua and Barbuda, in 1967.</p><br>
<p>Scientists from the Montserrat Volcano Observatory visit the island in a helicopter periodically; they are using Redonda as an observation point from which to take measurements of the Soufrière Hills, an active volcano on Montserrat.</p><br>
<h2>Micronation</h2><br>
<p>Redonda is internationally known, in a minor way, as a micronation, because of the curious ongoing myth of the "Kings of Redonda", a story which interweaves fact and fiction. According to a (possibly imaginary) version of events, first recounted decades later by M. P. Shiel, an author of fantasy novels, in the year of his birth, 1865, his father Matthew Dowdy Shiell, from Montserrat, decided to celebrate his first male child by arranging for the boy to be crowned King of Redonda at the age of 15, in a ceremony purportedly carried out on the small island by a bishop.</p><br>
<p>M. P. Shiel, the son and author, was the first person to ever mention the idea of the "Kingdom of Redonda" and that was in a promotional leaflet for his books. Since then, the title has been "passed down", and continues to the present day. For a period of time the "Royal" lineage of Redonda had a more or less solely literary theme, with the title being given to writers and the like, such as John Gawsworth and Jon Wynne-Tyson. Wynne-Tyson (King Juan II), his successor the Spanish novelist Javier Marias (King Xavier), and rival contenders for the Redondan title, such as Gawsworth, William L. Gates and Bob Williamson, were featured in a BBC Radio 4 documentary, Redonda: The Island with Too Many Kings, which was broadcast in May 2007.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is a barrier island located off the northeast coast of Massachusetts, north of Cape Ann, in the United States. It is approximately 11 mi in length. The island is named for the wild beach plum shrubs that grow on its dunes. It is located in parts of four municipalities in Essex County. From north to south they are the city of Newburyport, and the towns of Newbury, Rowley, and Ipswich.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Captain John Smith</h3><br>
<p>Plum Island appears as an unnamed island as early as Captain John Smiths map of New England. Various scholars have speculated on the nature of the earlier accounts of European explorers in the New World, with particular focus on the latters surveys of the coastlines of Massachusetts, but Smith&#39;s account surely identifies Plum Island. He describes a harbor at "Angoam" (elsewhere "Aggawom", the Anglicised Native American name for the native village that preceded Ipswich, Massachusetts, and was destroyed by smallpox) as having "many sands" at its entrance. Before it was an island:</p><br>
<p>"Morish" is now "marsh", and the high gardens of "mulberry" trees must be beach plum, which prefers the crowns of the dunes, although today can be seen on only a few. The map shows an imaginary English town (the insertion of Charles I of England) of the then-future "South Hampton", about where Newbury is. The Hampton suggestions were later put to use, but further north.</p><br>
<h3>The Mason grant</h3><br>
<p>A grant in 1621 by the Plymouth Council for New England, acting under a charter from James I of England (not then reigning) to colonize New England, deeded the land between the "Naumkeag" and Merrimack rivers to Captain John Mason. The island was to be named the Isle of Mason. Mason, then governor of Newfoundland, never acted on the grant. It was later included in a similar grant to the Massachusetts Bay Colony; nevertheless, in 1681 the heirs of John Mason petitioned the General Court of Massachusetts for possession of the grant, now colonized by several communities. After a trial before justices appointed for the purpose, the General Court decided it could not honor the claim, as no one then knew the location of the Naumkeag River, and in any case Mason&#39;s grant had been included in another. It did assess a nominal quit-rent fee of a few shillings on land-holders undeniably within the tract; that is, as far south as Ipswich.</p><br>
<h3>Division of the island</h3><br>
<p>Ipswich, Massachusetts, was incorporated as Ipswich in 1634 by settlers of the previous year from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1635 another group from England passed through Ipswich to settle and incorporate Newbury, Massachusetts. In 1639 a third group from England was granted the remaining land between Newbury and Ipswich and incorporated Rowley, Massachusetts. There is no official record of the use of Plum Island until then, although Smith&#39;s glowing report had included the marsh grass, an enticing feature for herdsmen. A document of January 2, 1639, survives, however, by which Robert Wallis and Thomas Manning of Ipswich agree to maintain a common herd of 48 hogs on Plum Island starting on April 10 and running to the end of the harvest. One of them was always to be present. Reaction of the other communities was immediate. Newbury filed a petition with the General Court of Massachusetts for ownership of the entire island. The petition was denied on March 13 with the proviso that Ipswich, Rowley and Newbury were allowed use of the island, which became a pasture for hogs, cattle and horses.</p><br>
<p>In March 1649 Newbury again pressed for title to the island. It argued that "for three of four miles together there is no channel betwixt us and it." At low tide they drove wagons across. These arguments did not prevail; on October 17, 1649, the court finalized its temporary decision, apportioning 2/5 of the island to Newbury, 2/5 to Ipswich and 1/5 to Rowley. There is no hint in the court documents that they ever used a name other than Plum Island. The name is apparently of local origin; the journal of Margaret Smith (1678-9) relates:</p><br>
<p>An historian of the region, Joshua Coffin, said of it in 1845:</p><br>
<h2>Current geography and village</h2><br>
<p>The northern portion of the island is bordered by the mouth of the Merrimack River (in which stands Badgers Rock), the western portion by the Plum Island River in the north (which joins the mouth of the Merrimack to Plum Island Sound), Plum Island Sound in the south (into which empty the Parker, Rowley and Eagle Hill rivers) and the southern portion by the mouth of the Ipswich River (into which the sound empties). The Atlantic Ocean lies to the east. The sound is a tidal estuary.</p><br>
<p>Now situated in Essex County, Plum Island is divided between four cities and towns: Newburyport, Newbury, Rowley and Ipswich. Developed areas of the island constitute the village of Plum Island, Massachusetts with public beaches, businesses and private residences. The village surrounds a body of water known as "the Basin," and lies wholly within Newburyport and Newbury, the Newbury portion forming one of three legal precincts of the town. The island&#39;s pristine largest section is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as the Parker River National Wildlife Refuge. On the mainland opposite, the Massachusetts Audubon Society operates the Joppa Flats Education Center and Wildlife Sanctuary.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is accessed by one road running from Newburyport to the north of the island on a causeway and drawbridge over the Plum Island River. A charter to build the road between Rolfe&#39;s Lane (Ocean Avenue) and the island was granted in 1806 to the Plum Island Turnpike and Bridge Corporation. The road remained a private one until 1905, when the General Court required Essex County to lay it out as a county road, compensating its then owners with a cash settlement.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island Drive runs along the inland side of the island. In the north it is lined with homes. In the refuge it is paved for about half its distance and is a dusty dirt road for the remainder. Along it are numbered parking lots with boardwalks leading to the beach, overlooks and trails, and facilities for the maintenance of the refuge.</p><br>
<p>Toward the south is the former site of Camp Sea Haven, a therapeutic camp for those stricken with polio. Visitors are restricted from the levelled site. At the southern end of the road, the tip of the island, is Sandy Point State Reservation, a state park. It is for day use only. At the northern end of the road, the northern tip of the island, is the Plum Island Lighthouse, the only lighthouse remaining on the island. It marks the narrow entrance to the mouth of the Merrimack River. The swift tidal currents through the outlet and through the channel between Ipswich Bay and Ipswich Harbor on the southern end make boating and swimming hazardous.</p><br>
<h2>Touring facilities</h2><br>
<p>Like most coastal communities, Plum Island has historically been a popular vacation destination. Several large hotels operated during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, there are numerous lodging options for tourists, including bed and breakfasts, inns, and rental cottages. In addition, there is a population of year-round residents.</p><br>
<p>From Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day weekend, the city of Newburyport offers a Friday-Sunday shuttle bus from Plum Island Point to downtown Newburyport and the Newburyport commuter rail station with a connection to Boston. The service is operated by the MVRTA, costs $1.25 for adults paying cash.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Great Marsh</h3><br>
<p>Plum Island is a barrier beach sheltering the Plum Island River, Plum Island Sound, and the mouths of the Parker, Rowley, Eagle Hill and Ipswich rivers. The entire area between the islands and the mainland is grassland laced with tidal creeks. At high tide the grassland is entirely submerged, in some places by only a few inches of water. At all other times the extensive stretches of grass appear. The creeks either dry up completely or are small channels within mud flats where shellfish proliferate. The lower stretches of the rivers and Plum Island Sound are thus tidal estuaries receiving the fresh-water flows of the rivers.</p><br>
<p>The grassland is historically termed "Great Marsh". However, the name also comprises the similar grasslands behind the barrier beaches at Castle Neck (Crane Beach) and Coffins Beach, which shelter the estuaries of the Essex and Annisquam rivers. Not included are the grasslands south of Cape Ann nor the grasslands north of the mouth of the Merrimack River. The entire coast of Massachusetts comprises this type of estuarial terrain, except for the rocky outcrops. Great Marsh has been the focus of a coalition of environmental groups and agencies to protect the marshes between Cape Ann and the Merrimack River from degradation. Historically this coalition continues the work of the founding fathers of Ipswich and other towns in the area, who found it necessary to protect the marsh from overgrazing by means of legislation.</p><br>
<h3>Beach</h3><br>
<p>Plum Island Beach is a gently sloping shelf extending some distance out to sea. As a result of the slope, tidal flow does not reach very far horizontally, while breakers are small and close to shore. Boats can easily be launched from or landed on the beach. The shelf causes strong undertow currents. During severe storms the beach is inundated and the breakers strike the dune line. A number of ships have been wrecked in the shallow waters off Plum Island Beach.</p><br>
<p>The Labrador Current flows from north to south along the shore, migrating sand in that direction and chilling the coastal waters. Several breakwaters have been constructed along the north coast of the island to protect the beach and impede the process. The migrating sand moves the outlet of the Merrimack River, which has been artificially fixed at its current location.</p><br>
<h3>Vascular plants</h3><br>
<p>On the dunes a fragile cover of beach grass, beach pea and beach heather stabilize the sand. Visitors to the refuge are restricted from the dunes except on boardwalks to protect this cover. Destabilization has been a problem. In 1953 the USA Soil Conservation Service planted several thousand black pines, a hardy alpine tree, to help hold the sand.</p><br>
<p>Stands of black pine, pitch pine and occasional eastern red cedar trees can be found in the depressions between the dunes. There also are thickets of beach plum, from which the island takes its name, as well as bayberry and honeysuckle (the latter being intrusive).</p><br>
<p>Maximum dune elevation is about 50 ft. In the deeper depressions and more sheltered regions between or next to the higher dunes are vernal pools in which black oak, red maple and black cherry can be found. In the underbrush are cranberry. The ferns, moss and leaf cover there shelter salamanders and spadefoot toads.</p><br>
<p>The native salt-water marshes between Plum Island and the mainland (Great Marsh) are visible from the western edge of the island. Salt marsh hay which grows there has been harvested for feeding farm animals.</p><br>
<p>Less visible in "the low marsh" at the margin of the water is smooth cordgrass. Also in the marsh are the sedges, Cyperus and Carex.</p><br>
<p>In the 1940s and &#39;50s the wildlife service created two freshwater marshes, North and South Pools, from island runoff by diking a section of the marsh contiguous to the island. It serves as a nesting area and stopover for migrating birds. Originally the common cattail dominated the freshwater marshes, but two intrusive plants, the common reed and purple loosestrife, have replaced much of it.</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>The mammals are typical of Massachusetts woodland: the striped skunk, the raccoon, the red fox, the meadow jumping mouse, the white-tailed deer, meadow vole, white-footed mouse and others.</p><br>
<h3>Avians</h3><br>
<p>Plum Island and its surrounding estuaries are a popular destination for birders. Plum Island Sound is on a migratory route for many varieties of birds, as well as being a nesting area for piping plovers. Much of the beach in the National Wildlife Refuge is closed to visitors during the nesting season, which can last most of the warm months.</p><br>
<p>Several prepared observation posts of birds are usually populated by birders with equipment ranging from simple binoculars to expensive telephoto cameras. Some posts are blinds; others are simply a paved shoulder with a sign. Birds are usually observed in the native salt-water marshes, the artificial fresh-water marshes and the thickets and isolated trees of the refuge.</p><br>
<p>The birds most commonly observed are listed in the visitor center in the refuge. They are the greater yellowlegs, mallard duck, least sandpiper, great egret, snowy egret, herring gull, great black-backed gull, osprey, Canada goose, tree swallow, gray catbird, killdeer, glossy ibis, red-winged blackbird, northern mockingbird, least tern, piping plover and peregrine falcon.</p><br>
<h2>Beach and dune pests</h2><br>
<h3>Greenhead flies</h3><br>
<p>The greatest visible pest to humans is the greenhead fly. Before insect control they swarmed the beach and dunes so thickly as to make human presence there difficult if not impossible from June through September. In recent years the near elimination of the population with traps has reduced their impact to an occasional bite.</p><br>
<h3>Ticks</h3><br>
<p>The dog tick and the deer tick enter the clothing of their victim from the vegetation and later crawl into the soft tissue, where they attach themselves. Dog ticks are less harmful, except to dogs, from whom they can in sufficient numbers remove a dangerous amount of blood. Deer ticks often carry Lyme disease, which is endemic to the region.</p><br>
<h3>Mosquitoes</h3><br>
<p>The mosquito is a pest everywhere in Massachusetts. Mosquito control has reduced the presence of the pest in the Newbury region. A few cases of eastern equine encephalitis virus, carried by mosquitoes, occur each year.</p><br>
<h3>Poison ivy</h3><br>
<p>Poison ivy is indigenous to all the woodlands of Massachusetts. It especially loves the margins of paths. On Plum Island it grows in every thicket and in mats along the sand. The visitor is cautioned at the visitor center to learn to identify its three shiny leaves.</p><br>
<p>Lough Derg, historically Lough Dergart , is a freshwater lake in the Shannon River Basin, Ireland. It is the second-biggest lake in Ireland and the third-biggest on the island of Ireland .</p><br>
<p>It is a long, narrow lake, with shores in counties Clare (south-west), Galway (north-west), and Tipperary (to the east). It is the southernmost of three large lakes on the River Shannon; the others being Lough Ree and Lough Allen. Towns and villages on Lough Derg include Portumna, Killaloe & Ballina, Dromineer, Terryglass, Mountshannon and Garrykennedy.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s name evolved from the Irish Loch Deirgdheirc. This was one of the names of The Dagda, an Irish god, and literally means "red eye".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>At its deepest, the lake is 36 metres deep and covers an area of 130 km² (50.2 sq miles). Close downstream from where Lough Derg empties into the Shannon are the falls of Doonass, the largest fall on the otherwise gently sloping river. Nearby is the location of the hydroelectric power plant at Ardnacrusha, which, when built in 1927 was the world&#39;s largest.</p><br>
<h2>Usage</h2><br>
<p>In the nineteenth century, Lough Derg was an important artery from the port at Limerick to Dublin through the canals in the midlands of Ireland. Navigable over its full 40 km length, Lough Derg is today popular with cruisers and other pleasure craft, as well as sailing and fishing. The University of Limerick have an activity centre by the lake, just north of Killaloe, where there are canoes, kayaks, windsurfing, sailing dingies, and other recreations.</p><br>
<p>Lough Derg is home to an RNLI Lifeboat which is based at Dromineer, the first inland station in Ireland.In June 2013, 35 people were brought to safety when a major rescue effort was undertaken after an international rowing event was hit by severe weather.</p><br>
<p>Dublin City Council published a plan in 2011 for a pipeline to supply up to 350 million litres of water a day from Lough Derg to Dublin city and region. In 2016 the Parteen Basin at the south of lough was chosen as the proposed site of extraction. Water would be pumped to a break pressure tank at Knockanacree near Cloughjordan in County Tipperary and gravity fed from there to Dublin.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>A breeding pair of white-tailed eagles first nested on an island in Lough Derg in 2012. This marked a great success for the Irish reintroduction programme started in the summer of 2007.</p><br>
<p>The North-East Shore is listed as a Special Area of Conservation.</p><br>
<h2>Towns/villages</h2><br>
<p>Ballina</p><br>
<p>Dromineer</p><br>
<p>Garrykennedy</p><br>
<p>Kilgarvan</p><br>
<p>Killaloe</p><br>
<p>Mountshannon</p><br>
<p>Portroe</p><br>
<p>Portumna</p><br>
<p>Scarriff (location of regional Waterways Ireland office)</p><br>
<p>Terryglass</p><br>
<p>Whitegate</p><br>
<p>The Selwyn River / Waikirikiri flows through the Selwyn District of Canterbury in the South Island of New Zealand.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The river has its source in the southern of the Southern Alps and flows east for 80 km before emptying into Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, south of Banks Peninsula. Terrace cliffs above the river&#39;s upper reaches gave the town of Whitecliffs its name.</p><br>
<p>For much of its course the river flows through wide shingle channels. In drought years, the river can disappear beneath this bed and seem to dry up completely. This frequently occurs where State Highway 1 crosses the river at the settlement of Selwyn, about 20 km upstream from its outflow into Lake Ellesmere.</p><br>
<p>In the foothills, the Selwyn flows year-round. On the plains, the riverbed is highly permeable, and the river overlays a deep and porous aquifer. As soon as the river reaches the plains, water begins leaking down through the bed and into the aquifer. In most months, all river-water disappears within 5 km of leaving the foothills. The next 35 km of the river remains dry for most of the year, apart from a small section around the confluence with the permanently flowing Hororata River. About 15 km upstream from Lake Ellesmere shallow groundwater rises back to the surface, and the Selwyn becomes permanent again.</p><br>
<p>Disappearing river flows have significant ecological effects: when the river’s surface water disappears, so does the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals. In response to loss of surface water, aquatic invertebrates and fish must disperse, seek refuge in remnant aquatic habitats, or die. Aquatic plants, algae, and bacteria must form resting stages or die. The dry central reaches of the Selwyn River also constitute a significant barrier for dispersal of invertebrates and for fish migrating between Lake Ellesmere and the headwaters.</p><br>
<h2>Naming</h2><br>
<p>The Selwyn River and its gorge were named in 1849 by the chief surveyor of the Canterbury Association, Joseph Thomas, for Bishop Selwyn. The name was later adopted for the township, the district, and an electorate.</p><br>
<p>Fort Larned National Historic Site preserves Fort Larned which operated from 1859 to 1878. It is approximately 5.5 mi west of Larned, Kansas, United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Camp on Pawnee Fork was established on October 22, 1859 to protect traffic along the Santa Fe Trail from hostile American Indians. It was renamed Camp Alert in 1860, as the small garrison of about 50 men had to remain constantly alert for Indians. In May 1860 it was moved upstream, 3 mi 30 miles to the west up the Pawnee Fork, and by the end of the month was renamed Fort Larned. It served the same purpose as Camp Alert and as an agency for the administration of the Central Plains Indians by the Bureau of Indian Affairs under the terms of the Fort Wise Treaty of 1861. The forts service ended as a combination of the tribes relocation to reservations and the completion of railroads across Kansas that ended the need for the Santa Fe Trail.</p><br>
<p>Larned, Kansas and the fort that was constructed there are named in honor of Colonel Benjamin F. Larned, the paymaster general of the United States Army at the time the post was established. Larned experienced a lengthy military career, first serving as an ensign in the 21st Infantry during the War of 1812. He was promoted to captain after the defense of Fort Erie, and by 1854 Larned was a colonel and had been appointed paymaster general. Despite the town and fort bearing his name, Colonel Larned ironically never came to Kansas.</p><br>
<p>As the American government claimed vast amounts of land west of the Mississippi River, trade and commerce with the territories grew exponentially. According to one source in 1859, trade had risen $10,000,000 annually. In the Missouri Republican, it was reported that 2,300 men, 1970 wagons, 840 horses, 4,000 mules, 15,000 oxen, 73 carriages, and over 1,900 tons of freight left Missouri for New Mexico. It became apparent an additional fortification was required to protect the trade routes. Fort Larned&#39;s location was chosen by William Bent, an agent for the Upper Arkansas Indians. Bent stated, “I consider it essential to have two permanent stations for troops, one at the mouth of Pawnee Fork, and one at Big Timbers, both upon the Arkansas River....To control them (the Indians), it is essential to have among them the perpetual presence of a controlling military force.”</p><br>
<p>The forts original structures were poorly constructed and inadequate. Built of adobe bricks, Fort Larned consisted of an officers quarters, two combination storehouses and barracks, a guardhouse, two laundresses&#39; quarters, and a hospital, with a bakery and meat house being later additions. After its establishment, nearby Plains Indians began to respect the trail commerce. In August, 1861, Colonel Leavenworth, reporting from Fort Larned, stated the Indians had left the Santa Fe trail area and there was no apprehension of any hostilities.</p><br>
<p>When the Civil War erupted in 1861, Fort Larned witnessed its first action and hostility from the Indians. Soldiers in the regular army were removed from the post to join the growing conflict in the East, leaving the fort to be operated by volunteer troops from Kansas, Colorado, and Wisconsin. Raids and harassment of travelers by Plains Indians increased during the Civil War years. On July 17, 1864, Kiowa Indians raided Fort Larned and stole 172 horses and mules from the corral. The raiders were pursued but never caught.In 1865 a system of escorting wagon trains was established, and all merchants were forbidden travel westward beyond Fort Larned without an armed escort.</p><br>
<p>Though the fort was never directly involved in any Civil War engagements, one incident nearly brought the fighting to Larned. In May 1862, Confederate General Albert Pike arranged an alliance with some Kiowa and Seminole Indians with intentions of capturing Forts Larned and Wise. The plan was never carried out, as the Indians left for their annual hunt when the weather improved.</p><br>
<p>Fort Larned was the site of a meeting between General Winfield Scott Hancock and several Cheyenne chiefs on April 12, 1867, in which Hancock intended to impress the Dog Soldier chiefs with his military power. After the meeting, Hancock, along with George Armstrong Custer and the 7th USA Cavalry traveled west of Fort Larned to a combined Cheyenne and Lakota camp, inciting the villagers to flee. Hancock ordered the village burned, beginning a summer of warfare known as Hancocks War. Fort Larned assisted in bringing Hancocks War to an end by supplying the Medicine Lodge Treaty. During the winter of 1868–69, USA Major General Philip H. Sheridan launched a campaign against the Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Comanche Indians in the Great Plains region. Sheridan&#39;s men attacked any who resisted, taking their supplies and livestock and pushing the remaining Indians back into their reservations. By the end of the Winter Campaign, Sheridan had forced a majority of the Indians in the Fort Larned area on to reservations.</p><br>
<p>Renovations to Fort Larned took place between 1866 and 1868. The original sod and adobe structures were removed and replaced with the sandstone buildings that make up the fort today. By 1871, no escorts were required for the wagon trains traveling on the Santa Fe Trail, eliminating the need for military presence in the region. The post was abandoned on July 13, 1878, and on March 26, 1883, the Fort Larned Military Reservation was transferred from the War Department to the General Land Office of the Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>From 1885 to 1966, the buildings housed the headquarters of a ranch, with the owners living in the house of the commanding officer and the employees residing in what had been the officers&#39; quarters. In 1957 the Fort Larned Historical Society was founded to develop and open the site as a tourist attraction. The fort was designated as a National Landmark in 1961, and in 1964 it was incorporated as a unit of the National Park System.</p><br>
<h2>Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>Barracks - Barracks housed the infantry and cavalry on the north side of the Fort. The barracks housed up to four companies. On average, just 100 or 150 troops were stationed here. By 1868, a peak of 400 and 500.</p><br>
<p>Shops - Repairs were handled by skilled, civilian tradesmen. Blacksmiths and carpenters were hired at high wages. In 1867, a blacksmiths made $85 a month, saddlers and wheelwrights $90. Soldiers who had skills could take on extra duty working in the shops building as laborers, blacksmiths, and mechanics. The bakery was at the north end of the shops and baked bread. The bread was allowed to "dry" on racks for at least two days before being served.</p><br>
<p>Warehouses - An important role for a frontier fort was as a place to store the supplies that kept the Army functioning, including food, ammunition, and clothing. The first sandstone buildings completed after the blockhouse. The first two, the Old Commissary and the Quartermaster Storehouse, brandish loopholes from which the fort could be defended with rifle fire in the event of an attack.</p><br>
<p>Officers Row - The company officers quarters were designed to house four companies of officers. A typical companys officers included two lieutenants and one captain. The officer were divided into two halls, each with four rooms; a lieutenant was housed in one room while captains could claim two. In the rear of each half of the building was a kitchen and servants quarters.</p><br>
<p>Blockhouse - The first sandstone structure to be completed was the blockhouse. It provided for defense. Built with two floor, each with loopholes to defend from attackers. It included an underground well. As the threat of attack diminished, the blockhouse was converted into the post&#39;s prison. The well tunnel was partially filled and used for solitary confinement. The rifle loopholes were also filled. The blockhouse is the only sandstone building that has been completely rebuilt, though it has been located on its original foundation.</p><br>
<p>With nine historic buildings, the fort survives as one of the best-preserved examples of Indian Wars-period forts. Most of the buildings, including the barracks, commissary, and officers quarters, are furnished to their original appearance. Fort Larned National Historic Site is open daily, year-round, and admission is free. The park offers several special events throughout the year, living history demonstrations, and ranger-guided tours.</p><br>
<h2>Units stationed at Fort Larned</h2><br>
<p>The following units were stationed at Fort Larned during its 19 years of operation:</p><br>
<p>1st USA Cavalry – 1859</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Infantry – 1859–63</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Dragoons – 1860–61</p><br>
<p>2nd Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1862</p><br>
<p>9th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1862–64</p><br>
<p>2nd Colorado Volunteer Cavalry – 1862–65</p><br>
<p>9th Battery, Wisconsin Light Artillery – 1862–65</p><br>
<p>1st Colorado Volunteer Cavalry – 1862–64</p><br>
<p>12th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Infantry – 1863</p><br>
<p>McLain’s Independent Colorado Volunteer Battery – 1864</p><br>
<p>15th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1864–65</p><br>
<p>3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Cavalry – 1864</p><br>
<p>11th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1864–65</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Volunteer Infantry – 1865</p><br>
<p>48th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment – 1865</p><br>
<p>17th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry – 1865</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Cavalry – 1865–66</p><br>
<p>13th USA Infantry – 1865</p><br>
<p>3rd USA Infantry – 1866–72</p><br>
<p>37th USA Infantry – 1867</p><br>
<p>10th USA Cavalry – 1867–69</p><br>
<p>6th USA Infantry – 1871–72</p><br>
<p>5th USA Infantry – 1872–74</p><br>
<p>19th USA Infantry – 1874–78</p><br>
<p>The 10th US Cavalry, stationed at Fort Larned from 1867 to 1869, was one of the first two all-black cavalry units utilized in the country, along with the 9th US Cavalry. Together, the units earned the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers" for their toughness in combat. They faced racism in the segregated US military, and on January 2, 1869, the 10th Cavalry&#39;s stables at Fort Larned burned to the ground, possibly the result of racially motivated arson. The fire killed dozens of horses, destroyed equipment, and caused the unit to be reassigned to Fort Zarah. In 1999, magnetic gradiometry and electromagnetic conductivity surveys were conducted at the fort to attempt to determine the location of the stables, which had been lost. The surveys identified several areas of anomalies consistent with locations of buildings, as well as evidence of disturbances to the land that occurred after the buildings were no longer used as a fort.</p><br>
<p>Fort Scott National Historic Site is a historical area under the control of the United States National Park Service in Bourbon County, Kansas, United States. Named after General Winfield Scott, who achieved renown during the Mexican-American War, during the middle of the 19th century the fort served as a military base for US Army action in what was the edge of settlement in 1850. For the next quarter century, it was used as a supply base and to provide security in turbulent areas during the opening of the West to settlement, a period which included Bleeding Kansas and the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The current national historic site protects 20 historic structures, a parade ground, and five acres (20,000 m²) of restored tallgrass prairie, inside the city of Fort Scott. It is open to visitors most days of the year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1842, Fort Scott was named after Winfield Scott, was established on the American frontier on the military road in eastern Kansas between Fort Leavenworth and Fort Gibson. It was established to provide protection to the rapidly increasing number of settlers, who were migrating from the Eastern United States. Fort Scott became one of a chain of forts intended to protect the new settlers from the Plains Indians, as well as to protect the Indians from the settlers&#39; encroachment.</p><br>
<p>The United States government intention to reserve permanent Indian lands west of the Missouri River gave way to the competition of settlers continuing to encroach on the Indian settlements. Fort Scott&#39;s most active days were between 1842 and 1853, although it was also used during the Civil War.</p><br>
<h3>Army days</h3><br>
<p>The Cherokee of Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) were upset to have Fort Wayne in their proximity. After some delay, the US Army decided to abandon Fort Wayne and move its soldiers to a new fort to be built between Fort Leavenworth and the site. The Army both wanted to placate the Cherokee (who were supervised by the Department of Defense) and provide more defense for white settlers and other Indians against the Osage, who had been conducting frequent raids in the area.</p><br>
<p>On April 1, 1842, some soldiers of Fort Wayne left their fort and on April 22 arrived where Fort Scott would be built, in the Osage Cuestas section of modern-day Kansas. After haggling with the Cherokees to acquire the land, the rest of Fort Wayne&#39;s garrison left the fort on May 26 and arrived at the Fort Scott site on May 30.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most forts for military use, the fort did not have defensive walls or structures when first built; the wide-open area and the available artillery made an enclosed fort unnecessary. The soldiers concentrated on building structures for lodging the men, animals, and equipment. These buildings were on the edges of a 350 ft parade ground.</p><br>
<p>The post quartermaster, Captain Thomas Swords, was in charge of building Fort Scotts structures, and had to deal with the problems of construction on the Kansas prairie, which had few trees. He had only two bricklayers and three carpenters to rely on, as there were few civilians and most of the soldiers had other duties to perform. Wood was available, but the mill was built 1.5 mi away, making transport time consuming. Swords found his efforts plagued by lack of wood, skilled labor and working equipment. Freak accidents destroyed much of the wood intended for the forts construction. As a result, only one duplex of the five planned officers quarters (four duplexes and post commandant&#39;s house) was built by 1844, and the intended enlisted barracks were not completed. In his 1844 inspection of the fort, Colonel George Croghan reported that, in comparison to other frontier forts, he considered Fort Scott "above average".</p><br>
<p>Due to the rising tensions that escalated in the Mexican-American War, the US Army redeployed troops to the Southwest. With Fort Scott still uncompleted, officials decided on April 25, 1850, that no more construction would be done there, after eight years and $35,000. By the time it was finished, it was obsolete; three years later, it was abandoned by the military in favor of the more western Fort Riley.</p><br>
<p>For the average soldier, life at the fort was "monotonous". Until the permanent structures were built, soldiers had to live in tents, which lacked comfort. Aside from a few whiskey peddlers and prostitutes, few civilians lived at the fort. Officers had brought their personal slaves with them, including Captain Swords. The border with Missouri was 5.15 mi east of Fort Scott. In Missouri was a grog shop that supplied soldiers, and quite a few courts-martial followed soldiers&#39; going AWOL at the shop. The desertion rate from the fort ranged from 12%-16%, due to boredom, irregular pay, and hatred for military life. As no combat took place near the fort, it seemed more of a frontier village than a military base. Hunting was a popular pastime; according to Captain Swords, "wolf chasing and duck hunting" was the only way one officer could tolerate the place.</p><br>
<h3>Bleeding Kansas</h3><br>
<p>Two years after the army abandoned the fort, the buildings were sold by auction to civilians, with two being converted to hotels. In 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had kept slavery out of Kansas. Missourians in favor of slavery soon moved to Kansas to try to sway the vote of whether or not Kansas would permit slavery. Settlers from New England arrived equally determined to keep it out. Each of the two competing factions of the Bleeding Kansas conflict claimed one of the hotels at Fort Scott: Free-Soil at the Fort Scott Hotel and Pro-Slavery at the Western Hotel. Most of the residents in Fort Scott supported slavery, but those outside the town tended to the free-soil side. During this time, there were local incidents of murder and attempted arson, typical elements of the guerrilla conflicts that were prevalent in the fighting.</p><br>
<h3>Army returns</h3><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, the fort was renewed as a US military post. In August 1861, the Union Army took command of Fort Scott, and readied it for the war times. The United States Army also took over several blocks within the town for commissary and quartermaster functions. The Union Army rented the properties from the current civilian owners. Troops from Indiana, Iowa, Colorado, Ohio, and Wisconsin would come to the fort, and either stayed by the fort, or traveled farther, to subjugate Missouri, Arkansas, or the Indian Territory. Fort Scott was one of the few installations that recruited and trained black soldiers for the United States Colored Troops of the Union Army.</p><br>
<p>A major supply depot was situated at the fort. Confederate general Sterling Price hoped to capture the town, but the closest the Confederate force came to the garrison was 10 mi away at Battle of Dry Wood Creek. The site was strategically important as it was within a Southern-sympathizing area and close to the Confederate state of Arkansas and the "unstable" Indian Territory (present-day state of Oklahoma), where many of the members of the Five Civilized Tribes were allied with the Confederates. The fort served as a "general hospital" (large military hospital) and prison until after the war. Following the end of the war, in October 1865 the US Army left the facilities and sold off by auction what they controlled.</p><br>
<p>On January 14, 1870, the Army returned with the formation of the Post of Southeast Kansas. The Post was based at Fort Scott, but the soldiers camped along the rail tracks, and seldom used the original fort. They were sent to protect the railroads and workers from settlers. Some of the latter feared that the railroad, which had been awarded land for development by the US Government in rights-of-way, would evict them from their squatter homes. The settlers considered the troops lackeys to the railroads, and lumped both as enemies.</p><br>
<p>Settlers also had some continuing conflicts with Indians and insurgents using the recent Confederate cause as excuse for robbery. By the spring of 1873, the US Army withdrew the troops from Fort Scott for good. From 1873 to 1965, the buildings of the fort were left unattended, and slowly deteriorated. Many military buildings were razed and replaced with structures built for civilian use.</p><br>
<h2>Modern times</h2><br>
<p>With the Act of August 31, 1965, the National Park Service gave the city government of Fort Scott, Kansas the necessary funds and technical knowledge to restore the fort.</p><br>
<p>On October 19, 1978, Fort Scott became a National Historic Site under the supervision of the National Park Service, encompassing 17 acre. Today the fort is open throughout the year, save for Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Years Day. Visitation has declined in recent years. In 2005 visitation was 25,528; in 2007 it was 22,314.</p><br>
<p>Surviving structures include four officers barracks, one dragoons barracks, two infantry barracks, a hospital, guardhouse, dragoon stables, ordnance and post headquarters, quartermaster stables, bake shop, flagpole, and magazine. Another feature of the park is 5 acre of tallgrass prairie restored as part of an ecology-restoration project.</p><br>
<p>Mount Tehama  is an eroded andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range in Northern California. Part of the Lassen volcanic area, its highest remaining remnant, Brokeoff Mountain, is itself the second highest peak in Lassen Volcanic National Park and connects to the parks highest point, Lassen Peak. Located on the border of Tehama County and Shasta County, Tehamas peak is the highest point in the former. The hikers that summit this mountain each year are treated to "exceptional" views of Lassen Peak, the Central Valley of California, and many of the park&#39;s other features. On clear days, Mount Shasta can also be seen in the distance.</p><br>
<p>Tehama started life some 600,000 years ago. At its peak activity, it reached approximately 3,350 meters (11,000 ft) high, with a basal diameter of approximately 12 kilometers. Volcanic activity then declined 400,000 years ago, with other volcanic lava domes forming at the edges of Mount Tehama later on, the largest and best known of which is Lassen Peak. A combination of continued hydrothermal activity and erosion, particularly by glaciers during ice ages, removed the central cone of the volcano, leaving a large caldera, the northern edge of which can still be seen.</p><br>
<p>Other remnants of Mount Tehama include Mount Conard, Pilot Pinnacle, Mount Diller, and Diamond Peak.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area near Lassen Peak became a haven for new settlers throughout the 1800s. Wagon trains followed winding trails on the Nobles Emigrant Trail which cut through the Lassen Peak vicinity near Sacramento Valley. One of the main landmarks along this trail was a volcano. Called Lassen Peak after Peter Lassen, a prominent blacksmith and guide who escorted California settlers, the volcano and the area around it were given merit for their gripping volcanic phenomena, which included lava beds and extinct volcanic cones. In May 1907, Lassen Peak was declared a National Monument by President Theodore Roosevelt to protect the area for "future generations to study and enjoy". Roosevelt had been told that the area was actually extinct in terms of eruptive activity. Despite assurance from Native Americans in the area that the mountain was indeed active, settlers continued to think that Lassen Peak was extinct and "dead" and so continued to settle nearby. The natives continued to declare that "one day the mountain would blow itself to pieces". In May 1914, almost exactly seven years later, the volcano began a large explosive eruption sequence. More than a hundred eruptions of varying size took place over the next seven years, attracting national interest and the designation of national park in 1916.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>The state of California is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area of highly active tectonic activity that includes seismicity and volcanism. Tehama and the other volcanoes near Lassen Peak were produced by subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate.</p><br>
<p>Mount Tehama originated in the Lassen volcanic complex, an area of active volcanism for more than three million years. It formed during a period of eruptive activity approximately 600,000 years ago on a series of faults; the largest of these eruptions was about 50 times as powerful as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. During the Pleistocene, constantly renewed lava of andesite flowed from the caldera of the volcano, eventually becoming "interbedded" and heightening the mountain. By the time it reached its peak size, the volcano was immense, measuring at its base between 11 mi and 15 mi wide and more than 11,000 ft tall. Activity at Tehama lasted for approximately 200,000 years. Eruptions varied from ejection of pyroclastic material to andesitic lava flows built of olivine and other minerals.</p><br>
<p>Soon after the formation of Tehama, other, smaller volcanoes began to form. Shield volcanoes like Raker Peak, Red Mountain, Prospect Peak, and Mount Harkness appeared. At this point, the Pleistocene was coming to an end. One additional and final vent formed on the northeastern flank of the volcano, erupting glassy dacitic flows. Later activity built more than thirty other cones known as the Lassen Domes. Today the most active volcano in the area is Lassen Peak. Other smaller craters younger than 50,000 years are also active.</p><br>
<p>Tehama&#39;s remains sit under Mount Lassen in Shasta County, California. Sulphur Works, an area known for its sharp, putrid scent, is thought to be the center of the old caldera. It is located by Diamond Point, the conduit for magmas in Tehama.</p><br>
<p>After Tehama disappeared, local volcanism became more silicic, moving to Lassen Peak&#39;s northern flank. The last 400,000 years have seen at least three known flows, parts of which are still on Raker Peak and Mount Conard. A subsequent explosive eruption ejected 12 cumi of material and created a large crater, which was soon covered by lava. Twelve lava domes were built throughout the area and the next period of eruptive activity began. Spanning 50,000 years it ejected 3.5 cumi to 6 cumi of material and was followed by a third period. At least twelve periods of activity have taken place since Tehama formed, consisting of activity including pyroclastic flows, pasty lavas, and additional lava domes. Among the vents built by this activity include Lassen Peak.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Near the trailhead at lower elevations, alder thickets are present, as well as incense cedar, red firs, and western white pine. At higher elevations, groups of mountain hemlock and lupines prevail. Eagles and hawks can be frequently noted on high crags, and squirrels and pika live about the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Hiking is especially popular on the mountain during summer. The mountain trail lasts between four and six hours, spans 7.4 mi, and offers "exceptional" views of Mount Diller, Lassen Peak, Chaos Crags, and Mount Conard.</p><br>
<p>Due to the characteristically intermittent eruptions of active volcanoes such as Lassen Peak, there is some threat from the volcanoes of the LVNP. Dacitic explosive eruptions have taken place within the last 50,000 years at Lassen Peak, Chaos Crags, and Sunflower Flat, and effusive eruptions of basalt have occurred at Tumble Buttes, Hat Mountain, and Prospect Peak. Pyroclastic flows and lahars could easily occur near glaciated areas and in river valleys like Hat Creek Valley. In addition to the volcanic hazards that could possibly occur, one volcano did erupt in the 20th century in LVNP: (Lassen Peak). Lassen&#39;s eruptions (1914-21, though most activity occurred between 1914-17) were very small compared to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.</p><br>
<p>Fort Knox, now Fort Knox State Park or Fort Knox State Historic Site, is located on the western bank of the Penobscot River in the town of Prospect, Maine, about 5 mi from the mouth of the river. Built between 1844 and 1869, it was the first fort in Maine built entirely of granite; most previous forts used wood, earth, and stone. It is named after Major General Henry Knox, the first USA Secretary of War and Commander of Artillery during the American Revolutionary War, who at the end of his life lived not far away in Thomaston. The fort was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970, as a virtually intact example of a mid-19th century granite coastal fortification. Fort Knox also serves as the entry site for the observation tower of the Penobscot Narrows Bridge that opened to the public on 19 May 2007.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Local memory of the humiliation of Maine at the hands of the British during the American Revolution and again during the War of 1812 contributed to subsequent anti-British feeling in Eastern Maine. The Penobscot Expedition of 1779 aimed to force the British from Castine, but ended in a debacle. The Americans lost 43 ships and suffered approximately 500 casualties in the worst naval defeat for the United States prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Then in autumn 1814, during the War of 1812, a British naval force and soldiers sailed up the Penobscot and defeated an outnumbered American force in the Battle of Hampden. The British followed their victory by looting both Hampden and Bangor. The American defeat contributed to the post-war movement for Maine&#39;s statehood, which occurred in 1820, as Massachusetts had failed to protect the region.</p><br>
<p>The Aroostook War of 1838-1839 revived anti-British feeling and concern over the vulnerability of the region to another attack like that of 1814. Also, the Penobscot valley and Bangor were major sources of shipbuilding lumber. The response was the inclusion of the Penobscot in the Third System of coastal fortifications, and the construction of Fort Knox, a large, expensive, granite fort at the mouth of the Penobscot River.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Construction began in 1844 and continued until all masonry fort funding was withdrawn in 1869, with the fort mostly complete except for the emplacements on the "roof" or barbette level. Funding from Congress was intermittent, and the forts design was never fully completed despite an expenditure of $1,000,000. Granite was quarried five miles (8 km) upriver from Mount Waldo in Frankfort. The forts overall design was by Joseph G. Totten, the foremost fortification engineer of the Army Corps of Engineers in his day. Notable engineer officers supervising construction included Isaac Ingalls Stevens and Thomas L. Casey.</p><br>
<p>Besides the main fort with 64 guns, Fort Knox had two open water batteries facing the river, each equipped with a shot furnace to heat cannonballs sufficiently that they could ignite wooden ships if the ball lodged in the vessel. These furnaces became obsolete with the adoption of ironclad warships.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>Fort Knox never saw battle, though it was manned during times of war. During the American Civil War volunteers from Maine, mostly recruits in training before assignment to active duty, manned the fort. Thomas Lincoln Casey supervised work on the fort, including adapting the batteries to use the recently invented Rodman cannon, and oversaw its completion.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish-American War</h3><br>
<p>A regiment from Connecticut manned Fort Knox during the Spanish–American War. A plaque at the fort describes the laying of a controlled minefield in the river during this war, which Congress appropriated $3,200 for shortly after its outbreak.</p><br>
<h3>Post Spanish-American War</h3><br>
<p>The garrison was reduced to one man, the "Keeper of the Fort" or caretaker with the rank of ordnance sergeant, at the end of the war. The keeper attended to the condition and maintenance of the fort, and reported to Fort Preble in South Portland. In 1900 the fort received a permanent "torpedo storehouse" for storing naval mines (which were called torpedoes at the time) that is now the Visitor&#39;s Center.</p><br>
<p>In 1923, the federal government declared the fort excess property and put its 125 acre grounds up for sale. The state of Maine bought it for $2,121. It is now a Maine state historic site and was declared a USA National Historic Landmark on December 30, 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Present</h2><br>
<p>The fort today is distinguished as one of the best-preserved and most accessible forts in the United States. Virtually all of the fort is open to the public. Several period weapons are on site, including two 15-inch Rodman smoothbores in the water batteries (one remounted), an 8-inch Rodman converted rifle near the parking lot, a 10-inch Rodman smoothbore in the fort, and several 24-pounder flank howitzers. Some of the flank howitzers are mounted on original carriages; "Fort Monroe 1862" can be seen on the bronze plates of these carriages. Remounted 15-inch Rodman guns are rare, as they weigh 50,000 pounds. They were the largest weapon produced in quantity of the Civil War era.</p><br>
<h2>Friends of Fort Knox</h2><br>
<p>The Friends of Fort Knox, a nonprofit group formed in the 1990s, has been responsible for many fort repairs and improvements. Friends of Fort Knox projects include the transformation of the Torpedo Storage Shed into the Visitor and Education Center, restoration of the Officers Quarters, installation of interpretive panels, repair of Battery A powder magazine, restoration and display of four 24-pound flank defense howitzers, repair and opening of the enlisted mens quarters, cistern, rooms and extensive masonry repair.</p><br>
<p>The Friends reached an agreement with the State Department of Conservation to take over day-to-day operations of the Fort, and began doing so on April 15, 2012. The State retains ownership of the fort as part of the agreement. The lease runs through 2015 and requires the Friends to be responsible for all maintenance of the grounds as well as the interior and exterior of buildings on the property. The Friends may also improve or alter the fort as long as any changes are consistent with the law.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 2012 the Friends were authorized to set the entrance fee to the fort, with the approval of the Bureau of Parks and Lands, with such fees consistent with the goal of keeping entry affordable for Maine residents. In exchange, the Friends keep 85 percent of entrance fee revenue, with the rest going to the State General Fund.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Dymi  is a former municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality West Achaea, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 71.553 km. Its seat of administration was the town of Kato Achaia. It is located 20 km southwest of Patras.</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Dymi is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Kato Achaia (Kato Achaia, Alykes, Manetaiikia, Paralia Kato Achaias, Piso Sykea)</p><br>
<p>Agiovlasitika (Agiovlasitika, Kapeli, Lefkos, Stenaitika)</p><br>
<p>Alissos (Alissos, Kamenitsa, Paralia Alissou, Profitis Elissaios)</p><br>
<p>Ano Achaia</p><br>
<p>Elaiochori</p><br>
<p>Kato Alissos (Kato Alissos, Gialos)</p><br>
<p>Niforeika (Niforeika, Paralia Niforeikon)</p><br>
<p>Petrochori (Petrochori, Veskoukaiika, Vythoulkas, Zampeteika, Karya, Lampraiika, Logothetis)</p><br>
<p>Oku is a subdivision in Northwest Cameroon. The term Oku also refers to the people who live in this region and the primary language that they speak . Oku is a rural area containing about thirty-six villages. The nearest really large city is Bamenda, but Kumbo, which is closer , is large enough to have telephone lines and a Baptist-run hospital. However,three mobile telephone networks  are available in Oku. As such, mobile internet facilities are available. Oku is also relatively near to the Nigerian border, and travel across the border is common, as many people in the region have relatives in Nigeria.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and climate</h2><br>
<p>Oku is a very mountainous region, around 1,200 m above sea level, and thus rather cool considering its latitude. It is not cold enough for snow, but at night temperatures drop below human comfort range. Mount Oku, a stratovolcano, reaches a height of 3011 metres (9880 feet) and is the second highest mountain of Cameroon after Mount Fako (better known as Mount Cameroon).</p><br>
<p>The broader Oku or Foumbot volcanic field also includes many scoria cones and maars, several of which are filled by crater lakes. Lake Oku is a cratert lake. Two of the crater lakes, Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun, have been the subject of extensive research. Quantities of gas build up in the lakes and occasionally are released; being heavier than air, they pour down the mountainside and can suffocate entire villages. Some of the locals believe that a god lives in the lake and must be appeased.</p><br>
<p>The region is an important one for biodiversity, especially the Kilum-Ijim Forest.</p><br>
<p>Oku has many well graded earth road linking its various villages and neighbouring subdivisions like Noni, babessi and Kumbo central, although none of them would be called good by most Westerners.</p><br>
<p>Oku has recently got a road link through Babungo from Bamenda. One can now take two hours from Bamenda through Ibal oku, Mbockevuh, Mawes*lake oku* through Tolon, chiar, Ikal to Elak and to Banso.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Oku is characterized by subsistence farming. There is a shortage of arable land, and the people farm even the steep hillsides. A typical practice is to plant beans, corn, and potatoes together in the same furrows.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>The religion of the region is predominantly a mixture of assorted local traditional beliefs (chiefly ancestor worship, also animism and paganism) with diluted forms of Christianity (mostly Baptist and Catholic, but also Lutheran and Charismatic; the Church of the Brethren are also represented).</p><br>
<p>As of 2004, the former Fon (i.e., the traditional king of the people, but with no formal political power), who has a Baptist background, was attempting some religious reforms, to move the people away from some of the more un-Christian traditional practices; these reforms have met with considerable resistance given that the present fon (Fon Sentieh II).</p><br>
<p>The shrines in Oku are Lumetu, Yicham, Wuchia. Lumetu is Famous for its in this shrine the houses the second grave of Mnkong Moteh.</p><br>
<p>The palaces example is the Mboggekwei palace (ntockemboggekwei)</p><br>
<p>The Farnsworth House was designed and constructed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe between 1945 and 1951. It is a one-room weekend retreat in a once-rural setting, located 55 miles  southwest of Chicago&#39;s downtown on a 60-acre  estate site, adjoining the Fox River, south of the city of Plano, Illinois. The steel and glass house was commissioned by Dr. Edith Farnsworth, a prominent Chicago nephrologist, as a place where she could engage in her hobbies — playing the violin, translating poetry, and enjoying nature. Mies created a 1,500-square-foot  house that is widely recognized as an iconic masterpiece of International Style of architecture. The home was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006, after joining the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. The house is currently owned and operated as a historic house museum by the historic preservation group, National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was retained by Dr. Edith Farnsworth to design a weekend retreat during a dinner party in 1945. The wealthy client was highly intelligent, articulate, and intent on building a very special work of modern architecture. The program was to design the house as if it were for himself. Farnsworth had purchased the riverfront property from the publisher of the Chicago Tribune, Colonel Robert R. McCormick. Mies developed the design in time for it to be included in an exhibit on his work at MOMA, the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1947.</p><br>
<p>After completion of design, the project was placed on hold awaiting an inheritance from an ailing aunt. Mies was to act as the general contractor as well as architect. Work began in 1950 and was substantially completed in 1951. The commission was an ideal one for any architect, but was marred by a very publicized dispute between Farnsworth and Mies that began near the end of construction. The total cost of the house was $74,000 in 1951 ($648,000 in 2012 dollars). A cost overrun of $15,600 over the approved pre-construction budget of $58,400, was due to escalating material prices resulting from inflationary commodities speculation in anticipation of demand arising from the mobilization for the Korean War. Near the completion of construction, Mies filed a lawsuit for non-payment of $28,173 in construction costs. The owner then filed a counter suit for damages due to alleged malpractice. Mies attorneys proved that Farnsworth had approved the plans and budget increases, and the court ordered the owner to pay her bills. Farnsworths malpractice accusations were dismissed as unsubstantiated. It was a bitter and hollow victory for Mies, considering the painful publicity that followed. The conflict resulted in an unfinished site and an unfurnished interior. The construction of a teak wardrobe closet and the system of bronze-framed screens to enclose the deck porch were completed to Mies&#39; designs by his former employee and architect William Dunlap and a local millworker who mediated between them. Mies never again communicated with Edith, nor spoke about their rumored relationship.</p><br>
<p>Edith continued to use the house as her weekend retreat for the next 21 years, often hosting architectural notables visiting to see the work of the world-famous architect. In 1968, the local highway department condemned a 2 acre portion of the property adjoining the house for a new raised highway bridge over the Fox River. Farnsworth sued to stop the project, but lost the court case. She sold the house in 1972, retiring to her villa in Italy.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, Farnsworth House was purchased by British property magnate, art collector, and architectural aficionado Peter Palumbo. He removed the bronze screen enclosure of the porch, added air conditioning, extensive landscaping and his art collections to the grounds, including sculptures by Andy Goldsworthy, Anthony Caro, and Richard Serra. At the time, the interior was furnished with Mies furniture, designed in the 1930s, but produced more recently by Knoll, and designs by Dirk Lohan, Mies&#39; grandson, a Chicago architect Palumbo commissioned specifically for the house.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, Palumbo struck a deal with the State of Illinois, which agreed to buy the house for $7 million and open it full-time to the public, but state officials withdrew from the deal in early 2003, saying $7 million was too much to spend at a time of financial crisis.</p><br>
<p>After owning the property for 31 years, Palumbo removed the art and put the property up for sale at Sotheby&#39;s in 2003, raising serious concerns about the future of the building. Preservationists and contributors from around the world, including the Friends of the Farnsworth House, began a concerted preservation and fund-raising effort to keep the house on its original site. With this financial support, the National Trust for Historic Preservation and Landmarks Illinois were able to purchase the house in December 2003 for a reported $7.5 million. Now operated as a house museum, the Farnsworth House is open to the public, with tours conducted by the National Trust. The house is listed in the National Register and is designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<h2>Configuration</h2><br>
<p>The essential characteristics of the house are immediately apparent. The extensive use of clear floor-to-ceiling glass opens the interior to its natural surroundings to an extreme degree. Two distinctly expressed horizontal slabs, which form the roof and the floor, sandwich an open space for living. The slab edges are defined by exposed steel structural members painted pure white. The house is elevated 5 ft above a flood plain by eight wide flange steel columns which are attached to the sides of the floor and ceiling slabs. The slabs&#39; ends extend beyond the column supports, creating cantilevers. A third floating slab, an attached terrace, acts as a transition between the living area and the ground. The house is accessed by two sets of wide steps connecting ground to terrace and then to porch.</p><br>
<p>Mies found the large open exhibit halls of the turn of the century to be very much in character with his sense of the industrial era. Here he applied the concept of an unobstructed space that is flexible for use by people. The interior appears to be a single open room, its space ebbing and flowing around two wood blocks; one a wardrobe cabinet and the other a kitchen, toilet, and fireplace block (the "core"). The larger fireplace-kitchen core seems like a separate house nesting within the larger glass house. The building is essentially one large room filled with freestanding elements that provide subtle differentiations within an open space, implied but not dictated, zones for sleeping, cooking, dressing, eating, and sitting. Very private areas such as toilets, and mechanical rooms are enclosed within the core. Drawings recently made public by the Museum of Modern Art indicate that the architect provided ceiling details that allow for the addition of curtain tracks that would allow privacy separations of the open spaces into three "rooms". The drapery was never installed.</p><br>
<p>Mies applied this space concept, with variations, to his later buildings, most notably at Crown Hall, his Illinois Institute of Technology campus masterpiece. The notion of a single room that can be freely used or zoned in any way, with flexibility to accommodate changing uses, free of interior supports, enclosed in glass and supported by a minimum of structural framing located at the exterior, is the architectural ideal that defines Mies&#39; American career. The Farnsworth House is significant as his first complete realization of this ideal, a prototype for his vision of what modern architecture in an era of technology should be.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture as an expression of the times</h2><br>
<p>The Farnsworth House addresses basic issues about the relationship between the individual and his society. Mies viewed the technology-driven modern era in which an ordinary individual exists as largely beyond his control. But he believed the individual can and should exist in harmony with the culture of his time to successfully fulfill himself. His career was a long and patient search for an architecture that would be a true expression of the essential soul of his epoch, the Holy Grail of German Modernism. He perceived our epoch as the era of industrial mass production, a civilization shaped by the forces of rapid technological development. Mies wanted to use architecture as a tool to help reconcile the individual spirit with the new mass society in which he exists.</p><br>
<p>His answer to the issue is to accept the need for an orderly framework as necessary for existence, while making space for the freedom needed by the individual human spirit to flourish. He created buildings with free and open space within a minimal framework, using expressed structural columns. He did not believe in the use of architecture for social engineering of human behavior as many other modernists did, but his architecture does represent ideals and aspirations. His mature design work is a physical expression of his understanding of the modern epoch. He provides the occupants of his buildings flexible and unobstructed space in which to fulfill themselves as individuals, despite their anonymous condition in the modern industrial culture. The materials of his buildings, industrial manufactured products like mill-formed steel and plate glass, certainly represent the character of the modern era, but he counterbalances these with traditional luxuries such as Roman travertine and exotic wood veneers as valid parts of modern life. Mies accepted the problems of industrial society as facts to be dealt with, and offered his idealized vision of how technology can be made beautiful and can support the individual. He suggests that the downsides of technology decried by late 19th century critics such as John Ruskin, can be solved with human creativity, and shows us how in the architecture of this house.</p><br>
<p>Reconnecting the individual with nature is one of the great challenges of an urbanized society. The 60 acre rural site offered Mies an opportunity to bring mans relationship to nature into the forefront. Here he highlights the individuals connection to nature through the medium of a man-made shelter. Mies said: "We should attempt to bring nature, houses, and the human being to a higher unity". Glass walls and open interior space are the features that create an intense connection with the outdoor environment, while providing a framework reduces opaque exterior walls to a minimum. The careful site design and integration of the exterior environment represents a concerted effort to achieve an architecture wedded to its natural context.</p><br>
<p>Mies conceived the building as an indoor-outdoor architectural shelter simultaneously independent of and intertwined with the domain of nature. Mies did not build on the flood-free upland portions of the site, choosing instead to tempt the dangerous forces of nature by building directly on the flood plain near the rivers edge. Philip Johnson referred to this type of experience of nature as "safe danger". The enclosed space and a screened porch are elevated five feet on a raised floor platform, just slightly above the 100 year flood level, with a large intermediate terrace level. The house has flooded substantially above the living level floor level twice, in 1956 and 1996 (both in excess of FEMA 500 year flood levels), causing significant damage to utilities, wood veneers, glass and to furnishings. The site experienced heavy rains and floodwaters rising to within two feet of the main floor in August 2007, setting curators scrambling to protect the house and its contents from any further rise in the flood level.</p><br>
<p>The house has a distinctly independent personality, yet also evokes strong feelings of a connection to the land. The levels of the platforms restate the multiple levels of the site, in a kind of poetic architectural rhyme, not unlike the horizontal balconies and rocks do at Wright&#39;s Fallingwater. The house is anchored to the site in the cooling shadow of a large and majestic black maple tree. As Mies often did, the entrance is located on the sunny side, facing the river instead of the street, moving visitors around corners and revealing views of the house and site from various angles as they approach the front door. The simple elongated cubic form of the house is parallel to the flow of the river, and the terrace platform is slipped downstream in relation to the elevated porch and living platform. Outdoor living spaces are extensions of the indoor space, with a screened porch (screens now gone) and open terrace. Yet the man made always remains clearly distinct from the natural by its geometric forms, highlighted by the choice of white as its primary color.</p><br>
<h2>Integration with nature</h2><br>
<p>Mies stated, "Nature, too, shall live its own life. We must beware not to disrupt it with the color of our houses and interior fittings. Yet we should attempt to bring nature, houses, and human beings together into a higher unity." With the concept of the weekend house, Mies van der Rohe has deeply marked the architectural culture, not to mention the art of material selection, construction and aesthetic perception. Beyond the functionality of a building, Mies van der Rohe also highlighted the building&#39;s most distinguishing aesthetic features. By using proportion and scale, Rohe was able to perceive its innermost order and distinguishing features and to express them in space and form.</p><br>
<p>The Farnsworth House, built on a vast meadow with a variety of trees along the Fox River, is not a structure that lives up to common societal ideals of inhabitable architecture. What is missing are the "non-essentials". As Mies quotes, "the essentials for living are floor and roof. Everything else is proportion and nature. Whether the house pleases or not is inconsequential." The house was created in order to enable its inhabitants to experience the rural silence and the passing of the seasons. It begins unfolding and communicating itself to the outside only with the change of the seasons. Thus, this house, and living in it, involves trust in the environment. The man-made geometric form creates a relationship the extraneous landscape surrounding it to exemplify "dwelling" in its simplest state. Open views from all sides of the building help enlarge the area and aid flow between the living space and its natural surroundings. The views achieved from the architecture reach through the masses of trees to the opposite bank of Fox River — the cell of urbanism as a meditative, almost monastic production, The ever-changing play of nature guides the inner life of the inhabitants through sensual space towards self-realization. The basic idea was thus realized.</p><br>
<p>The house stands independently as a masterpiece. Where the interior blends into the exterior, the gentleness of nature flows into the softness of the space, and light creates a subtle modulation within. Both aspects create an aura that solidifies sensibly where the inner and outer worlds meet. The house is in perfect harmony with nature – there is no garden architecture, no pathways, beds or flowers. A large maple tree protects the raised travertine marble terrace. The discrete white of the steel construction and the transparent glass panes make the house almost invisible; it offers its respect to nature.</p><br>
<p>The development of new technical and aesthetic possibilities helped Mies van der Rohe to create a solid foundation for his architecture. Despite all of the changes that have occurred over the years, these principles still have tremendous influence on modern architectural form. Reflecting upon the weekend house also led Mies to a form of expression that approached the building style of the Far East. However, it is devoid of any imitation, as is demonstrated by the wall as a non-supporting spatial termination, which allows for ground plans that are as open as possible for the extension of the living space into the garden. In the context of the idea of "skin and bones", the uniform treatment of materials and the concept of "adaptation to nature", catch the attention of architects who look to the past for inspiration for contemporary architecture.</p><br>
<p>As Mies stated on his achievement, "If you view nature through the glass walls of the Farnsworth House, it gains a more profound significance than if viewed from the outside. That way more is said about nature—it becomes part of a larger whole." Farnsworth House is the essence of simplicity in the purest form, displaying the ever-changing play of nature.</p><br>
<p>One of the many features of the immediate site was a large Black Maple tree, which was integral for the placement and orientation of the house on the site. Incidentally, the same kind of tree, which also is quite abundant in the State Park to the south, was part of the reason for the land in the immediate vicinity of the house to become a State Park in the 1960s. Due to disease and old age, the tree died in the early 2000s, and was subsequently removed, as most of the trunk of the tree remained and was being held in place through cables and bracing. The house&#39;s close proximity to the tree, some ten feet, led to a feeling of oneness with nature, which was integral to the design aesthetic that Mies sought in designing the house.</p><br>
<h2>Criticism</h2><br>
<p>The building design received accolades in the architectural press, resulting in swarms of uninvited visitors trespassing on the property to glimpse this latest Mies building. But as a result of the accusations contained in Edith Farnsworth&#39;s lawsuit, the house became a prop in the larger national social conflicts of the McCarthy era. The weekend house became a lightning rod for anti-modernist publications, exemplified in the April 1953 issue of House Beautiful, which attacked it as a communist-inspired effort to supplant traditional American styles.</p><br>
<p>Large areas of glass wall, flat roofs, purging of ornament, and a perceived lack of traditional warmth and coziness were International Style features that were particular talking points of attack. The poor energy efficiency of the Farnsworth House has been widely discussed.</p><br>
<p>Still, the Farnsworth House has continued to receive wide critical acclaim as a masterpiece of the modernist style, and Mies went on to receive the presidential Medal of Freedom for his contribution to American architecture and culture. Prominent architect and critic Philip Johnson was inspired by the design to build his own Glass House in 1947. In the 21st century, Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critics Paul Goldberger and Blair Kamin have both declared the house a masterpiece of modern architecture. Its timeless quality is reflected by the reverent fascination in the minimalist house shown by a new generation of design professionals and enthusiasts.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In 2013, Lego Architecture series produced a model of the Farnsworth House as a part of their landmark series.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, the movie Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice featured a house modelled after the Farnsworth House. The follow-up film Justice League also features the same house in a trailer released at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con.</p><br>
<h2>Recent developments</h2><br>
<p>In September 2008, the house was flooded by rains from the remnants of Hurricane Ike. Water levels reached about 18 in above the floor and the 5 foot stilts upon which the house rests. Much of the furniture was saved by elevating it above the flood waters. The house was closed to the public for the remainder of 2008 for repairs and reopened for public visitation in spring 2009.</p><br>
<p>It was announced in 2011 that the Illinois Institute of Technology, for which Mies restructured and designed the Master Plan was going to build a permanent exhibition space for the huge wardrobe that was formerly in the house. The wardrobe had been extensively damaged in the 1996, 1998, and 2008 floods, with its large size rendering any possible evacuation attempt costly and difficult. In an attempt to protect the wardrobe, Farnsworth House curators decided to have the wardrobe be on permanent display near the Visitor Center, which is well above the 500-year flood plain. Illinois Institute of Technology students under the direction of Professor Frank Flury have been involved in the design and construction of the structure, and the wardrobe will be better protected for future visitors. The students have nicknamed the building "Barnsworth". It was scheduled to be completed in September 2012.</p><br>
<p>Alissos  is a village and a community in the municipal unit of Dymi, Achaea, Greece. It is located near the Gulf of Patras, 3 km east of Kato Achaia, 3 km southwest of Kaminia and 17 km southwest of Patras. The community consists of the villages Alissos, Kamenitsa, Paralia Alissou and Profitis Elissaios. The Greek National Road 9  and the railway from Patras to Pyrgos run between Alissos and Paralia Alissou.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Alissos was known as Lisarea or Lysaria (Λισσαρέα or Λησαρέα; la Lisarée) during the period of Frankish rule in the late Middle Ages. According to the Chronicle of the Morea, it was a fief of the Barony of Akova, held in the late 1270s by Margaret of Lisarea (or Jeanne), a cousin of Walter of Rosières, baron of Akova. She married Geoffrey II of Briel. The fief was then inherited by their daughter, Helen, and her husband, Vilain II of Aulnay, Baron of Arcadia. Lisarea disappears thereafter, until ca. 1377, when it was held by Centurione I Zaccaria.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>The Poás Volcano, , is an active 2,708 m stratovolcano in central Costa Rica and is located within Poas Volcano National Park. It has erupted 40 times since 1828, including April, 2017 when visitors and residents were evacuated. The volcano and surrounding park are currently closed indefinitely, with a 2.5 kilometer safety perimeter established around the erupting crater.</p><br>
<h2>Crater lakes</h2><br>
<p>There are two crater lakes near the summit. The northern lake is known as the Laguna Caliente ("hot lagoon") and is located at a height of 2,300 m in a crater approximately 0.3 km wide and 30 m deep. It is one of the world&#39;s most acidic lakes. The acidity varies after rain and changes in volcanic activity, sometimes reaching a pH of almost 0; consequently, it supports little or no aquatic life. The bottom of this lake is covered with a layer of liquid sulfur. Acid gases create acid rain and acid fog, causing damage to surrounding ecosystems and often irritation of eyes and lungs.</p><br>
<p>Lake Botos, the southern lake, fills an inactive crater, which last erupted in 7500 BC. It is cold and clear, and is surrounded by a cloud forest within the National Park boundaries.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>On May 17, 1953, an eruption occurred that started a cycle that lasted until 1956. At least two people were reported missing.</p><br>
<p>Poás was near the epicenter of a 6.1-magnitude earthquake in January 2009 that killed at least forty people and affected Fraijanes, Vara Blanca, Cinchona (the most affected area), the capital San José, and the Central Valley region of Costa Rica.</p><br>
<p>There was also eruptive activity in 2009 involving minor phreatic eruptions and landslides within the northern active crater. Poás eruptions often include geyser-like ejections of crater-lake water.</p><br>
<p>On February 25, 2014, a webcam from the Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica (OVSICORI) captured the moment a dark cloud exploded about 1,000 feet in the air from a massive crater of the Poás Volcano. This volcano remains active today.</p><br>
<p>Poás is one of 9 volcanoes currently monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project. The project is collecting data on the carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emission rates from subaerial volcanoes.</p><br>
<h3>2017 Activity</h3><br>
<p>On April 9, 2017, National Park officials placed restrictions on visitors at Poas due to an increased volume of toxic gasses at the summit crater. An explosion on April 12 caused park officials to close the popular park to visitors. The measure was termed "temporary." Some nearby residents were also evacuated.</p><br>
<p>On April 14, 2017, two eruptions at 07:39 and 07:57 created an over three kilometer ash and vapor column. Further explosions occurred April 16.</p><br>
<p>Following a substantial blast on April 22 that sent incandescent rocks over a large area which damaged park buildings and infrastructure, Costa Rica President Luis Guillermo Solis toured the surrounding towns the following two days. Business owners described the negative financial impacts the volcano park closure were causing, and Solis released a video in Spanish and English urging potential tourists to visit the nearby community shops and restaurants. He also promised emergency agencies would continue to make updated reports on the eruption.</p><br>
<p>The Ōpaoa River, formerly called the Opawa River, is in the Marlborough region of the South Island of New Zealand. It begins in the Wairau valley where floodways are joined. It makes its way down the valley and flows through and looping around the eastern suburbs of Blenheim where it is crossed by the Opawa River Bridge. It joins the Taylor River in Blenheim  and flows into Big Lagoon, the estuary it shares with the southern mouth of the Wairau River at Cloudy Bay.</p><br>
<p>There are two possible sources for the river&#39;s name. It might have been named after the chief Paoa. Rangitāne iwi say that the name Ōpaoa literally means smoky river. With Blenheim built on swampy land, the river was often brown (or &#39;smoky&#39;) as a consequence. In August 2014, the name of the river was officially altered to Ōpaoa River.</p><br>
<p>The Khumbu Glacier is located in the Khumbu region of northeastern Nepal between Mount Everest and the Lhotse-Nuptse ridge. With elevations of 4,900 m at its terminus to 7,600 m at its source, it is the world&#39;s highest glacier. The Khumbu Glacier is followed for the final part of the trail to one of the Everest Base Camps. The start of the glacier is in the Western Cwm near Everest. The glacier has a large icefall, the Khumbu Icefall, at the west end of the lower Western Cwm. This icefall is the first major obstacle—and among the more dangerous—on the standard south col route to the Everest summit. It is also the largest Glacier of Nepal.</p><br>
<p>The end of Khumbu Glacier is located at 27.932N and 86.805E.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Pokalde Peak  is a mountain peak of Nepal situated 12 km southwest of Mount Everest. Pokalde Peak is one of the shortest and easiest trekking peaks in the Everest Region. The majority of the 650m climb from base camp requires little more than walking with short sections of scrambling up rock.</p><br>
<p>During the trekking seasons this rocky peak is scarcely covered by snow. Despite its lack of any great technical difficulty, it offers trekkers the prospect of reaching 5,800m in elevation and superb views from the summit, particularly to the South East, North West and West. Other prominent mountains visible from the summit include Makalu, Ama Dablam and Pumori. Because of its relatively low difficulty and impressive summit vista&#39;s for this altitude, Pokalde is a popular commercial tourist peak in Nepal for those wishing to climb a Himalayan peak without needing to use ice axes and crampons.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of Pokalde Peak was made in April 1953 via the ridge adjoining the Pokalde summit with the Kongma La high pass (5535m). This ridge continues from Kongma La to the slightly higher Mehra Peak (Kongma Tse) at 5820m and beyond. Hence the prominence of Pokalde Peak is modest at 271m (889 feet). Most ascents of Pokalde Peak nowadays are made by skirting the opposite Makalu side of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Pokalde Peak can be easily climbed in half a day by a fit and acclimatised group with appropriate leadership. Despite its low difficulty, sections of Pokalde are quite exposed so it shouldn&#39;t be attempted in poor weather. Doing so would significantly increase the difficulty of the climb above that of a "simple trekking peak". The final pitch to the summit also involves a short section of near vertical scrambling which for amateurs should definitely be protected by rope.</p><br>
<p>The base camp of Pokalde Peak is situated in a raised "amphitheatre" style valley with a large circular lake in the middle below the Kongma La pass. About 40 minutes from the base camp is the Kongma glacier. This glacier offers ice walls suitable for ice climbing training by appropriately equipped and motivated groups. The glacier is said to be receding in size.</p><br>
<p>Footprint evidence of significant snow leopard activity has been witnessed in the vicinity of Pokalde Peak base camp. This is despite the popularity of the area in being the gateway to both a major trekking peak as well as a high pass.</p><br>
<p>Even during the trekking seasons, it is not uncommon for overnight temperatures at base camp to be in excess of twenty degrees below freezing.</p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Herdla is an island in the municipality of Askøy in Hordaland county, Norway. The 1.6 km&sup2; island lies just north of the larger island of Askøy and just west of the island of Holsnøy. The island is surrounded by the Herdlefjorden and Hjeltefjorden.</p><br>
<p>The island of Herdla was part of the municipality of Herdla until 1 January 1964 when it was merged into Askøy. The island has a nature reserve with 220 registered species of birds. During the Second World War, it was the site of Herdla Airport and some coastal fortifications. Herdla Church is located on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Air base and coastal fortifications</h2><br>
<p>During the Second World War, all of Herdla was in effect a military base for the German Luftwaffe. The flat area "Herdlevalen" was considered a good place for an airport. The air base at Herdla was important to defend the west coast of Norway against Allied attacks. Many fortifications were built to hinder possibly invading forces. All civilians had to leave the island. In 1945, they came back to an island full of military installations.</p><br>
<p>Herdla was seriously considered as the site for Bergen&#39;s main airport. After the war the air traffic control for the Bergen area was placed at Herdla. However, in 1955, the airport was finally built at Flesland instead, since that would not require boat to reach it.</p><br>
<p>After the war some of the military installations were assimilated into the Royal Norwegian Coastal Artillery, who also built a series of new installations on the island. In recent years the fortress has been used for training new recruits for the coastal artillery, but the fortress was permanently closed in 2000 as a part of a major restructuring of the Norwegian Armed Forces, when the Royal Norwegian Coastal Artillery was decommissioned.</p><br>
<p>Helike  was an ancient Greek city that was submerged by a tsunami in the winter of 373 BC. It was located in Achaea, northern Peloponnesos, two kilometres  from the Corinthian Gulf and near the city of Boura, which, like Helike, was a member of the Achaean League. Modern research attributes the catastrophe to an earthquake and accompanying tsunami which destroyed and submerged the city. In an effort to protect the site from destruction, the World Monuments Fund included Helike in its 2004 and 2006 List of 100 Most Endangered Sites.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Helike was founded in the Bronze Age, becoming the principal city of Achaea. The poet Homer states that the city of Eliki participated in the Trojan War as a part of Agamemnons forces. Later, following its fall to the Achaeans, Eliki led the Achaean League, an association that joined twelve neighboring cities in an area including todays town of Aigio. Eliki, also known as Dodekapolis (from the Greek words dodeka meaning twelve and polis meaning city), became a cultural and religious center with its own coinage. Finds from ancient Eliki are limited to two 5th-century copper coins, now housed in the Staatliches Museum, Berlin. The obverse shows the head of Poseidon, the city&#39;s patron, and the reverse his trident. There was a temple dedicated to the Helikonian Poseidon.</p><br>
<p>Helike founded colonies including Priene in Asia Minor and Sybaris in South Italy. Its panhellenic temple and sanctuary of Helikonian Poseidon were known throughout the Classical world, and second only in religious importance to Delphi.</p><br>
<p>The city was destroyed in 373 BC, two years before the Battle of Leuctra, during a winter night. Several events were construed in retrospect as having warned of the disaster: some "immense columns of flame" appeared, and five days previously, all animals and vermin fled the city, going toward Keryneia. The city and a space of 12 stadia below it sank into the earth and were covered over by the sea. All the inhabitants perished without a trace, and the city was obscured from view except for a few building fragments projecting from the sea. Ten Spartan ships anchored in the harbour were dragged down with it. An attempt involving 2000 men to recover bodies was unsuccessful. Aigion took possession of its territory.</p><br>
<p>The catastrophe was attributed to the vengeance of Poseidon, whose wrath was incited because the inhabitants of Helike had refused to give their statue of Poseidon to the Ionian colonists in Asia, or even to supply them with a model. According to some authorities, the inhabitants of Helike and Bura had even murdered the Ionian deputies.</p><br>
<p>About 150 years after the disaster, the philosopher Eratosthenes visited the site and reported that a standing bronze statue of Poseidon was submerged in a "poros", "holding in one hand a hippocamp", where it posed a hazard to those who fished with nets.</p><br>
<p>Around AD 174 the traveler Pausanias visited a coastal site still called Helike, located 7 km southeast of Aigio, and reported that the walls of the ancient city were still visible under water, "but not so plainly now as they were once, because they are corroded by the salt water".</p><br>
<p>For centuries after, its submerged ruins could still be seen. Roman tourists frequently sailed over the site, admiring the city&#39;s statuary. Later the site silted over and the location was lost to memory.</p><br>
<p>argued that the submergence of Helike might have inspired Plato to write his story about Atlantis. Ancient scholars and writers who visited the ruins include the Greeks Strabo, Pausanias and Diodoros of Sicily, and the Romans Aelian and Ovid.</p><br>
<h3>Subsequent events</h3><br>
<p>On 23 August 1817, a similar disaster, an earthquake followed by a tsunami, occurred on the same spot. The earthquake was preceded by a sudden explosion, like that produced by a battery of cannon. The aftershock was said to have lasted a minute and a half, during which the sea rose at the mouth of the Selinous River and extended to cover all the ground immediately below Vostitza (the ancient Aigion). After its retreat, not a trace was left of some artillery depots which had stood on the shore, and the beach was carried away completely. In Vostitza, 65 people lost their lives and two thirds of its buildings were entirely ruined, as were five villages in the plain.</p><br>
<h2>Research efforts</h2><br>
<p>The submerged town was long one of the biggest targets for underwater archaeology. Scientists were divided in their opinions about the exact location of Helike. Numerous archaeologists, historians, professors and explorers wrote, studied and actively searched, trying to discover any trace of the ancient town, with little success. But their work, essays, observations and studies contributed to an important and growing body of knowledge. Among them are the following:</p><br>
<p>In 1826, François Pouqueville, French diplomat and archaeologist, who wrote the Voyage en Grèce; in 1851 Ernst Curtius the German archaeologist and historian who speculated about its location; in 1879 J. F. Julius Schmidt, the director of Athens Observatory, issuing a study comparing the Aegeion earthquake which occurred 26 December 1861 with an earthquake which might have destroyed Helike; in 1883 Spiros Panagiotopoulos, the mayor of Aegeion city, wrote about the ancient city; in 1912 the Greek writer P. K. Ksinopoulos wrote The City of Aegeion Through the Centuries and in 1939 Stanley Casson, an English art scholar and army officer who studied classical archaeology and served in Greece as liaison officer, addressed the problem.</p><br>
<p>Other investigators include in 1948 the German archaeologist Georg Karo; in 1950 Robert Demangel, who was from 1933 to 1948 the director of the French School of Archaeology in Athens; in 1950 Alfred Philippson, German geologist and geographer; in 1952 Spiros Dontas, Greek writer and member of the Academy of Athens; in 1954 Aristos Stauropoulos, a Greek writer who published the History of the city of Aegeion; in 1956 the Greek Professor N. Κ. Moutsopoulos; in 1967 Spyros Marinatos, a Greek archaeologist who wrote the Research about Helike and in 1968 Helike-Thira-Thieves; in 1962 George K. Georgalas, the Greek writer; and in 1967 Nikos Papahatzis, a Greek archaeologist who published Pausanias’ Description of Greece.</p><br>
<p>Spyridon Marinatos, emphasizing the importance of the discovery of Helike, said that only the declaration of a third world war would obscure the discovery of Helike. He pointed out Helike as an unresolved problem of Greek archaeology in 1960. In 1967, Harold Eugene Edgerton worked with the American researcher Peter Throckmorton. They were convinced that Helike was to be found on the seabed of the Gulf of Corinth. Edgerton perfected special sonar equipment for this research but permission to search was not granted by the Greek authorities. In 1967 and in 1976, Jacques Cousteau made some efforts with no result. In 1979 in the Corinthian Gulf, the Greek undersea explorer Alexis Papadopoulos discovered a sunken town and recorded his findings in a documentary film which shows walls, fallen roofs, roof tiles, streets, etc. at a depth of between 25 and 45 m. "Whether or not this town can be identified with Helike is a question to be answered by extensive underwater research. In any case, the discovery of this town can be regarded as an extremely interesting find", according to the Greek scientific journal Archaeology.</p><br>
<h2>Rediscovery</h2><br>
<p>In 1988, the Greek archaeologist Dora Katsonopoulou, president of the Helike Society, and Steven Soter of the American Museum of Natural History launched the Helike Project to locate the site of the lost city. Ancient texts, telling the story of Helike, said that the city had sunk into a poros, which everyone interpreted as the Corinthian Gulf. However, Katsonopoulou and Soter raised the possibility that poros could have meant an inland lagoon. If an earthquake caused soil liquefaction on a large scale, the city would have been taken downward below the sea level. Also, if an earthquake caused the sections of coastline to fall into the sea, this would have created a tsunami, which in turn would have flooded the inland lagoon with the city in it. Over time, the river sediment coming down from the mountains would have filled in the lagoon hiding the city remains beneath the solid ground.</p><br>
<p>Before Helike was rediscovered, a few false starts came along the way. In 1994, in collaboration with the University of Patras, a magnetometer survey carried out in the midplain of the delta revealed the outlines of a buried building. This target (now known as the Klonis site) was excavated and a large Roman building with standing walls was found. To further confirm that the discovered site belongs to Helike, the earthquake destruction layer consisting of cobblestones, clay roof tiles, and pottery was uncovered in 2012. This destruction layer is in good agreement with ancient texts on the location of Helike and earthquake effects to the city.</p><br>
<p>Excavations are being carried out in the Helike delta each summer and have brought to light significant archeological finds dating from prehistoric times when Helike was founded up until its revival in Hellenistic and Roman times.</p><br>
<p>Lake Leelanau lies in the Leelanau Peninsula of the USA state of Michigan. The entire lake—which includes two bodies of water, usually referred to as North Lake Leelanau and South Lake Leelanau—covers about 8,608 acre and lies within Leelanau County. The lake is also sometimes known as Carp Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Lake Leelanau connects on the northwest to the Leland River, which runs for one mile (1.6 km) to Lake Michigan. Between North Lake Leelanau and South Lake Leelanau the water narrows for about a mile near the unincorporated community of Lake Leelanau.</p><br>
<p>A bridge crosses the narrows on M-204. Just south of the bridge is Fountain Point, a historic and scenic landmark as well as a popular summer resort.</p><br>
<p>On the southern end, South Lake Leelanau ends in a marshy area fed by several small creeks, and the waters access the community of Cedar in Solon Township.</p><br>
<p>Lake Leelanau runs 21 mi through the middle of the Leelanau Peninsula; it is about 1.5 mi at its widest. The south lake includes 5,693 acre, the north lake includes 2,914 acre, and the lakes have a total shoreline of about 41.2 mi. The south lake has an average depth of 24 ft, and a maximum depth of 62 ft; the north lake has an average depth of 40 ft and a maximum depth of 121 ft.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Native Americans who first inhabited the area called this land "ke-ski-bi-ag," which means "narrow body of water,".</p><br>
<p>Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, an Indian agent for the territory, was credited with formally naming the county, and was said to use Leelinau as a character in his writing. See Leelanau County for a more complete discussion of the etymology of the name.</p><br>
<p>Scholars have established, however, that Leelinau was first used as a pen name by Schoolcrafts wife Jane Johnston Schoolcraft in writings for The Literary Voyager, a family magazine which she and her husband wrote together in the 1820s. Jane Johnston was of Ojibwa and Scots-Irish descent, and wrote in Ojibwe and English. While her writing was not published formally in her lifetime (except as Schoolcraft appropriated it under his own name), Jane Johnston Schoolcraft has been recognized as "the first Native American literary writer, the first known Indian woman writer, the first known Indian poet, the first known poet to write poems in a Native American language, and the first known American Indian to write out traditional Indian stories." In 2008 Jane Johnston Schoolcraft was inducted into the Michigan Womens Hall of Fame.</p><br>
<p>Viminacium was a major city  and military camp of the Roman province of Moesia , and the capital of Moesia Superior .</p><br>
<p>The site is located 12 km from the modern town of Kostolac in Eastern Serbia. The city dates back to the 1st century AD, and at its peak it is believed to have had 40,000 inhabitants, making it one of the biggest cities of that time. It lies on the Roman road Via Militaris. Viminacium was devastated by Huns in the 5th century, but was later rebuilt by Justinian. It was completely destroyed with the arrival of Slavs in the 6th century. Today, the archaeological site occupies a total of 450 hectare, and contains remains of temples, streets, squares, amphitheatres, palaces, hippodromes and Roman baths.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The remains of Viminacium, the capital of the Roman province of Moesia Superior, are located on territories of the villages of Stari Kostolac and Drmno, about 12 km from the town of Kostolac and about 90 miles southeast of Belgrade. Viminacium was one of the most important Roman cities and military camps in the period from 1st to 4th centuries. Its exceptional strategic importance was reflected both in the defense of the northern border of the Roman empire and in turn of communications and commercial transactions. No less appealing to the Romans was the hinterland of the Mlava river valley, which is rich in ore and grains. In Roman times, the town on the northern side of relying directly on the branch of the Danube, while the western side, touching the walls Mlava rivers. Only in the later period, Viminacium spread to the left bank of Mlava. Thanks to the location, land and waterways, Viminacium represented one of those areas where the encounter of cultures between East and West was inevitable. Although these roads were the primary military and strategic function, they are taking place throughout antiquity very lively traffic and certainly contributed to the very Viminacium become prosperous and an important trading and business headquarters.</p><br>
<p>In Viminacium, Roman legion VII Claudia was stationed, and a nearby civilian settlement emerged from the military camp. In 117 during the reign of Hadrian it received city status. In the camp, 6.000 soldiers were stationed, and 30-40.000 lived nearby. In the first half of then</p><br>
<p>the 3rd century the city was in full development, as evidenced by the fact that at that time it acquired the status of a Roman colony, and the right to coin local money. Here, in 196, Septimius Severus declared his son Caracalla as successor with the status of "Caesar". In the mausoleum and the excavated tombs, the Roman emperor Hostilian, who died in 251, was buried.</p><br>
<p>A legion may have been stationed here as early as Augustus (27 BC-14 AD). In 33/34 AD a road was built, linking Viminacium and Ratiaria. Claudius (41-54) garrisoned Viminacium, Oescus and Novae as camps for the Moesian legions.</p><br>
<p>The first legion attested at Viminacium was the VII Claudia that came from Dalmatia in 52 AD.</p><br>
<p>Emperor Trajan (98-117) was headquartered here during the Dacian Wars. It became a colonia with minting privilege in 239 AD during the rule of Gordian III (238-244) and housed the Legion VII and Legion IV.</p><br>
<p>Emperor Hostilian was the son of the emperor Decius, who was killed in the ambush near the ancient city of Abrutus located in present-day Bulgaria. According to the old manuscript, emperor Hostilian and his mother came to Viminacium to supervise the organization of defense of northern borders, but both of them died of the plague. Because of the distance and the fear of spreading the plague, he was buried with all honors in Viminacium.</p><br>
<p>Viminacium was the provincial capital of Moesia Superior. In the late spring of 293-294, Diocletian journeyed through his realm and he re-organized Viminacium as the capital of the new province of Moesia Superior Margensis. He registered that the people wrote in Latin, as opposed to Greek in the southern provinces. Viminacium was the base camp of Legio VII Claudia, and hosted for some time the IIII Flavia Felix. It had a Roman amphitheatre with room for 12,000 people.</p><br>
<p>In 382 the city was the meeting place between Theodosius and Gratian amidst the Gothic Wars.</p><br>
<p>Viminacium was destroyed in 441 by the Attila the Hun, but rebuilt by Justinian I. During Maurice&#39;s Balkan campaigns, Viminacium saw destruction by the Avars in 582 and a crushing defeat of Avar forces on the northern Danube bank in 599, destroying Avar reputation for invincibility.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>As provincial capital of Moesia Prima, Viminacium also became a Metropolitan archbishopric, presumably from about 300 to circa 400.</p><br>
<p>The Serbian Orthodox Eparchy of Braničevo is considered the successor of both Viminacium and Horreum Margi.</p><br>
<h3>Titular see</h3><br>
<p>The archdiocese was nominally restored in 1925 as a Latin Catholic Metropolitan titular archbishopric Viminacium (Latin) / Viminacio (Curiate Italian)</p><br>
<p>It has had the following archiepiscopal incumbents:</p><br>
<p>Alfred-Jules Mélisson (1925.07.11 – death 1927.06.06) as promotion on emeritate, previously Bishop of Blois (France) (1907.10.10 – 1925.02.09) and Titular Bishop of Irenopolis in Cilicia (1925.02.09 – 1925.07.11)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Francis Hickey (1928.10.30 – death 1940.12.10) as emeritate; previously Titular Bishop of Berenice (1905.02.18 – 1909.01.18) as Coadjutor Bishop of Rochester (NY, USA) (1905.02.18 – 1909.01.18) succeeding as Bishop of the same Rochester (1909.01.18 – 1928.10.30)</p><br>
<p>Manoel da Silva Gomes (1941.05.24 – death 1950.03.14), as emeritate; formerly Titular Bishop of Mopsuestia (1911.04.11 – 1912.09.16) as Auxiliary Bishop of Ceará (Brazil) (1911.04.11 – 1912.09.16), succeeding as Bishop of the same Ceará (1912.09.16 – 1915.11.10), Metropolitan Archbishop of Fortaleza (Brazil) (1915.11.10 – 1941.05.24)</p><br>
<p>Settimio Peroni (1951.02.01 – death 1958.10.12), as emeritate; former Bishop of Norcia (Italy) (1928.12.17 – 1951.02.01)</p><br>
<p>Jean-Baptiste Boivin, Society of African Missions (S.M.A.) (1959.06.10 – 1970.04.24) as emeritate; previously Titular Bishop of (1939.03.15 – 1955.09.14) as last Vicar Apostolic of Costa d’Avorio (Ivory Coast=Cote d’Ivoire) (1939.03.15 – 1940.04.09), restyled only Apostolic Vicar of Abidjan (1940.04.09 – 1955.09.14), promoted first Metropolitan Archbishop of the same Abidjan (1955.09.14 – 1959.06.10)</p><br>
<p>Franco Brambilla (1970.12.24 – 2003.07.28) as papal diplomat: Apostolic Pro-Nuncio (papal envoy) to Tanzania (1970.12.24 – 1981.11.21), Apostolic Nuncio (ambassador) to Uruguay (1981.11.21 – 1986.02.22), Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to Australia (1986.02.22 – retired 1998.12.03); died 2003</p><br>
<p>Stanisław Wojciech Wielgus (2007.01.06 –...), as emeritate; previously Bishop of Płock (Poland) (1999.05.24 – 2006.12.06), Metropolitan Archbishop of Warszawa (Warschau, Poland)</p><br>
<h2>Location and excavation</h2><br>
<p>Viminacium is located in Stari Kostolac (Old Kostolac) a Serbian town on the Danube river, east of Belgrade.</p><br>
<p>Viminacium is the location of the first archaeological excavation in Serbia, which started in 1882, by Mihailo Valtrović, an architect by profession and the first professor of archeology at the college in Belgrade. The only help he received was from twelve prisoners, because the state did not have enough resources to provide him with a better work force. His research was continued by Miloje Vasić, in the mid 1890s. It has intensified in the last ten years in the area of the Roman city of the Roman legionary camps and cemeteries. Many studies suggest that the military camp at Viminacium had a rectangular plan, measuring 442 x 385 meters, and that is not far from its western wall of civilian settlement in an area of approximately 72 acres. The Legionary camp in Viminacium is now in an area of arable land, so that Viminacium is easily accessible to researchers, but unfortunately also to robbers. The National Museum in Belgrade and Požarevac have 40,000 items found in Viminacium, of which over 700 are made of gold and silver. Among them are many objects that are rare and invaluable.</p><br>
<p>Researchers have discovered more than 13,500 graves. The tombstones and sarcophagi are often decorated with relief representations of scenes from mythology or daily life. We have found numerous grave masonry construction. Especially interesting are the frescoes of the 4th-century tombs. The Frescos of young women have high artistic value as examples of Roman art. During the excavation, an amphitheater was discovered, which with its 12,000 seats was one of the largest in the Balkans.</p><br>
<h3>Archeological site</h3><br>
<p>1 million year old mammoth skeleton was uncovered in the Viminacium site in June 2009.</p><br>
<p>A remarkable find of a 35 centimetre jade sculpture. The work shows the possibility of a workshop existent under the Roman era.</p><br>
<p>In June 2012, excavation revealed a gladiator arena with many wild animals remains - those of a bear and of a camel. The skeleton of a bear dates from the 2nd century AD when many competitive games were held in amphitheatre. The bear almost certainly died during a spectacle, either fighting with another animal or with a man. A camel died about a century after.</p><br>
<p>June 21, 2012 archaeologists have discovered Roman graveyard from 2nd and 3rd centuries AD with extremely valuable pieces of fine jewelry as well as oil lamps which served to illuminate the way to the other world for the deceased ones. Not far from this necropolis, an "industrial complex" was discovered with remains of enormous furnaces whose purpose is yet to be determined.</p><br>
<p>In 1980 the Sevso Treasure affair broke out, when Hungary, Yugoslavia and Lebanon contested the ownership over the silver objects hoard which appeared on the market. Yugoslav journalists began an investigation which lasted for years. It was discovered that numerous artifacts were smuggled and illegally sold outside of Yugoslavia. Though the Sevso Treasure itself was not from this site, Viminacium, due to the poor maintenance and low protection at the time, was specifically named as the find which "enriched many foreign collections with the valuable artifacts, sold below their true value".</p><br>
<h3>Domus scientiarum Viminacium</h3><br>
<p>Domus scientiarum Viminacium is a new scientific, research and tourist center built on the edge of the Archaeological park. The Domus was constructed in the manner of a Roman villa, with rooms and laboratories grouped around several atria. The Domus hosts an archaeological museum, a scientific library, laboratories for processing archaeological finds, an information center, conference rooms, a restaurant with dining hall and SPA center in the form of a Roman bath. There are also bedrooms available for researchers, students and visitors. One of the most spectacular features is a large conference room decorated by a Serbian mosaicist who installed mosaics based on Late Antique style.</p><br>
<p>Humphreys Peak  is the highest natural point in the USA state of Arizona, with an elevation of 12,633 ft and is located within the Kachina Peaks Wilderness in the Coconino National Forest, about 11 mi north of Flagstaff, Arizona. Humphreys Peak is the highest of a group of dormant volcanic peaks known as the San Francisco Peaks.</p><br>
<p>The summit can be most easily reached by hiking the 4.8 mi long Humphreys Summit Trail that begins at the Arizona Snowbowl ski resort in the Coconino National Forest.</p><br>
<p>Humphreys Peak was named in about 1870 for General Andrew A. Humphreys, a USA Army officer who was a Union general during the American Civil War, and who later became Chief of Engineers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. However, a General Land Office map from 1903 showed the name San Francisco Peak applied to this feature (apparently borrowed from San Francisco Mountain on which the peak stands). Thus the United States Board on Geographic Names approved the variant name in 1911. In 1933, the application of the names was rectified.</p><br>
<p>Boundary Peak is a mountain in Nevada, United States. With a peak elevation of 13,147 ft, it is the highest natural point in the state of Nevada.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Boundary Peak is the northernmost peak of 13,000 feet or greater elevation within the White Mountains. The summit is located in Esmeralda County of southwestern Nevada, and is within the Boundary Peak Wilderness of the Inyo National Forest. It is less than half a mile (1 km) from the California state line, which is how it derived its name.</p><br>
<p>While it is the highest point in Nevada, the considerably taller Montgomery Peak (13,441 ft) less than a mile away, across the state line in California. By most definitions Boundary Peak, which has a prominence of only 253 feet, is considered to be a sub-peak of Montgomery Peak.</p><br>
<p>Boundary Peak is only 82 ft taller than Wheeler Peak, which is located in Great Basin National Park, White Pine County in eastern Nevada. By most definitions, Wheeler Peak is the tallest independent mountain within Nevada.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>This peak is most often climbed from the Nevada side. From there, a climber may scramble the ridge connecting to Montgomery Peak. It is recommended that the USA Forest Service (Inyo National Forest) be contacted so they can provide climbing information.</p><br>
<p>Gannett Peak is the highest mountain peak in the USA state of Wyoming at 13,809 ft above sea level. It straddles the boundary between Fremont and Sublette counties along the Continental Divide in the Wind River Range.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Geographically, Gannett Peak is the apex of the entire Central Rockies, the largely continuous chain of mountains occupying the states of Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. Named in 1906 for American geographer Henry Gannett, the peak is also the high point of the Wind River Range. The mountain slopes are located in both Bridger-Teton National Forest and Shoshone National Forest.</p><br>
<p>Gannett is the highest peak within what is better known as the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and is the highest peak in the Rocky Mountains outside of Colorado. The 896 acre Gannett Glacier, which is likely the largest single glacier in the American portion of the Rocky Mountains, extends across the northern slopes of the mountain. Minor Glacier is situated in the western cirque of the peak while Dinwoody and Gooseneck Glaciers can be found on the southeast side of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Gannett Peak is in the heart of a remote and rugged wilderness, and climbing is usually attempted in a four- to six-day round-trip. It is often considered by mountaineers to be one of the most difficult USA state high points to reach, after Denali and possibly Granite Peak.</p><br>
<p>In October 2010, a private plane crash in the vicinity of the mountain triggered an extensive search-and-rescue operation. The plane was located in early November, with no survivors.</p><br>
<p>Kaliveli Lake, or Kaliveli Lagoon, is a coastal lake and lagoon with wetlands in the Viluppuram District of Tamil Nadu state, in eastern South India.</p><br>
<p>This lake is on the Coromandel Coast, near the Bay of Bengal. It lies approximately 16 km north of Pondicherry city, and 10 km north of Auroville.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Kaliveli Lake is a seasonal wetland, with a gradient from freshwater to brackish water, and is an important feeding and breeding ground on migratory bird flyway. The lake is one of the largest wetlands in peninsular India, and is considered a wetland of both national and international importance by the IUCN.</p><br>
<p>It is currently threatened by encroachment from agricultural fields, wildlife poaching, loss of the surrounding forests, and increased commercial prawn farming.</p><br>
<p>Despite being one of the melting pot of southern Indian Coastal ecological site, this lake is hardly explored by nature lovers and environmental enthusiasts. 90% of the shores of this lake are not accessible through roads, which is also the main reason for its abundance of flora and fauna. One must take care of dangerous sinking peats and bogs while wading through these swamps. Also, these swamps are infested with mites and bugs that are carriers of most feared filariasis, malaria and other waterborne diseases. Hence the trekkers are advised to carry bugs repellant creams and thick boots. As this lake is always isolated and noticing another human is almost impossible in its 20 km vicinity, explorers are advised to carry sufficient food, water and other essential items.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The ruins of colonial Allamparwa Fort are located at the north channel&#39;s entrance point into Kaliveli Lagoon, on the Coromandel Coast.</p><br>
<p>Liverpool Philharmonic Hall is a concert hall in Hope Street, in Liverpool, England. It is the home of the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Society and is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building. It is not the original concert hall on the present site; its predecessor was destroyed by fire in 1933 and the present hall was opened in 1939.</p><br>
<h2>Original hall</h2><br>
<p>The Liverpool Philharmonic Society was founded in 1840 but initially did not have a permanent concert hall. In 1844 the Liverpool architect John Cunningham was appointed to prepare plans for a hall. The initial requirement was for a "concert room" holding an audience of 1,500 which would cost at least £4,000 (equivalent to £ in ). Later that year the requirement was increased to a "new concert hall" to accommodate an audience of 2,100 and an orchestra of 250, plus "refreshment and retiring rooms". Subscribers were invited to both buy shares and to purchase seats along the sides of the hall. The foundation stone was laid in 1846 and plans were made for Mendelssohn to write a cantata to be played in his presence at the opening of the hall. Mendelssohn did not live long enough to write the work.</p><br>
<p>The hall cost £30,000 (equivalent to £ in ) and was opened on 27 August 1849 accompanied by a week long festival. A correspondent for The Times reported that it was "one of the finest and best adapted to music that I ever entered". The correspondent described the interior:</p><br>
<p>According to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the hall was universally agreed to have superb acoustics. A new organ was installed in the hall in 1930 at a cost of £2,000 (equivalent to £ in ).</p><br>
<p>The concert hall continued to be the home of the society until a fire broke out during the evening of 5 July 1933. Despite over 100 firemen attending the fire, the hall and new organ were damaged beyond repair. The hall contained a number of autograph books dating from 1848; these were contained in a fire-proof safe and thus kept safe along with autographed pictures and some instruments, though the music library was lost. Demolition work on the building&#39;s ruins began the next day.</p><br>
<h2>Present hall</h2><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>The building of a new hall was delayed by the demands of Liverpool City Corporation, which announced that it would not support the building of a venue suitable only as a concert hall. The corporation demanded an auditorium equally suited to cinema and theatre use. Controversy ensued with vocal opposition to the corporation&#39;s stance led by the doyen of British conductors, Sir Henry Wood. A compromise was reached and work began in June 1937.</p><br>
<p>Herbert J. Rowse was commissioned to design a new hall on the site of the previous hall. Rowses design was in Streamline Moderne style. It incorporated an organ built by the Liverpool firm of Rushworth and Dreaper with a console which can be lowered from the stage. The hall was officially opened on 19 June 1939, and inaugurated the next day with a concert conducted by Sir Thomas Beecham. The Manchester Guardian commented, "The magnificent compliment Liverpool has paid to the cause of music in England almost takes ones breath away... a hall of great size, noble proportions, and up-to-date appointments... ready to take its place among the most eminent homes of musical culture in this or any other country". The final cost of the hall was a little over £120,000 (equivalent to £ in ) and the architect was paid £6,869 (equivalent to £ in ). An extension was added to the rear of the hall which was completed in 1992, designed by Brock Carmichael Associates. A major refurbishment of the hall was carried out in 1995 at a cost of £10.3 million. This included the complete replacement of the fibrous plaster interior with concrete, carried out again by Brock Carmichael, working with the acoustic consultant firm Lawrence Kirkegaard Associates. A local violinist, John Frederick Clarke, who was part of the famed RMS Titanic orchestra, and the other band members who died during the ship&#39;s sinking in 1912 are all commemorated on a memorial plaque within Philharmonic Hall.</p><br>
<p>A further renovation, costing around £14 million, was completed in October 2015, primarily refurbishing the main concert hall and auditorium, and adding a new performance space named the Music Room.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The hall is built with fawn-coloured facing bricks, and is mainly in three storeys. It has a symmetrical frontage with a canopied entrance flanked by semicircular stair turrets. Above the entrance are seven windows that are separated by piers surmounted by carved abstract motifs. Outside the hall and separated from it are two piers for the display of posters. The architectural historians Pollard and Pevsner and the author of the description in the National Heritage List for England agree that the design of the hall was influenced by the Dutch architect W. M. Dudok.</p><br>
<p>The windows above the canopy contain glass etched by Hector Whistler. Glass doors panels by Whistler, originally from the building, and depicting musical instruments in art deco style, were featured on the BBC One&#39;s Antiques Roadshow in March 2015. Thirteen Pilkington glass panels had been purchased from a market in France by a Liverpool dealer, who expressed an interest in donating some to local museums. Inside the entrance to the hall is a copper memorial to the musicians of the Titanic by J. A. Hodel, and on the landings are gilded reliefs of Apollo by Edmund C. Thompson. The interior of the auditorium is "sensuously curved". On the walls on each side are incised female figures in art deco style that represent "musical moods", also by Thompson. On the back wall above the platform was a kinetic structure, called Adagio, designed by Marianne Forrest in 1995; however this was moved to the nearby Harold Cohen Library at the University of Liverpool in 2016.</p><br>
<p>The hall contains a 3-manual pipe organ built by Rushworth and Dreaper, with a console on a lifting platform that can be played on the stage or from the area below the stage, and a Walturdaw rising cinema screen.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>The hall stages about 250 events each year, of which more than 60 are concerts of classical music. The other shows include music of all genres, comedians, and films shown on the Walturdaw screen. Tours of the hall are arranged, and the hall can he hired for corporate or private events, including weddings.</p><br>
<p>The Laguna Mountains are a mountain range of the Peninsular Ranges System in eastern San Diego County, southern California. The mountains run in a northwest/southeast alignment for approximately 35 mi.</p><br>
<p>The mountains have long been inhabited by the indigenous Kumeyaay people.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Laguna Mountains are bordered by the Cuyamaca Mountains area on the west and the Colorado Desert on the east, where the mountains form a steep escarpment along the Laguna Salada Fault. To the north the Laguna Mountains are bounded by the Elsinore Fault Zone and to the south by Cameron Valley and Thing Valley.</p><br>
<p>The highest point is Cuyapaipe Mountain at 6,378 ft. The mountains are largely contained within the Cleveland National Forest. Snow falls on the highest peaks several times a year. Mount Laguna is a village in the Laguna Mountains with a population of about 80.</p><br>
<p>The headwaters of three perennial streams begin in the Laguna Mountains: Noble Creek, Cottonwood Creek, and Kitchen Creek.</p><br>
<p>The Laguna Mountains extend northwest about 35 mi from the Mexican border at the Sierra de Juárez range.</p><br>
<p>The Sawtooth Range and In-Ko-Pah Mountains are adjacent to the east. The Santa Rosa Mountains lie further to the northeast. The Cuyamaca Mountains are adjacent along the west.</p><br>
<p>The southern section is in the Mountain Empire region of San Diego County, and the northern section is in the East County region.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The Laguna Mountains are a popular recreation area in the Cleveland National Forest. They comprise the southernmost crest along the Pacific Crest Trail.</p><br>
<p>Their relatively high altitude induces the highest snowfall in San Diego County making it one of the few local places to offer snow activities like sledding and snowshoeing.</p><br>
<p>Vale Cemetery is the largest cemetery in Schenectady, New York. It opened on 21 October 1857 when the Rev. Julius Seely dedicated what was then termed "the Vale". It has tripled its size since opening and today it holds the remains of some of the most notable persons in Upstate New York. In 1973, a 35-acre tract of unused and abandoned cemetery land around the ponds of Cowhorn Creek was sold to the city of Schenectady to form Vale Park.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery and park were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>By 1850 the old public burying ground on Green and Front streets was being overrun with weeds and was described as being unsanitary. The Common Council resolved on 2 July 1856 to develop the grounds of the old Hospital Farm on Nott Terrace as a 38 acre public cemetery. On 16 June 1857, Mayor Benjamin V. S. Vedder appointed a committee to oversee the work.</p><br>
<p>To provide access from a main street, Dr Eliphalet Nott, the President of Union College donated an avenue from Nott Terrace into the grounds. Later in 1863, two pieces of land were purchased from the college, creating what is now known as Vale Park. The entrance on State Street was a donation from the First Reformed Church in 1867. The cemetery was planned by Burton Thomas as a rural cemetery. It featured many winding paths and he had more than 1,000 trees planted; Cowhorn Creek was dammed to create a lake within the grounds. The cemetery has since expanded and covers approximately 100 acre and holds some 33,000 burials. The cemetery includes the historic African-American Burying Ground. Since 2001, city residents have held annual commemorations of Juneteenth, celebrating emancipation and the end of the American Civil War; particularly since 2006, some have been held at the Burying Ground.</p><br>
<h2>Vale Cemetery Association</h2><br>
<p>In February 1858, the Common Council declared that it could not continue to run the cemetery at the taxpayers expense and that the cemetery must be taken up by private owners. Fourteen of the lot holders formed the Vale Cemetery Association and bought the 38 acre from the Common Council. They paid the sum of $800, and announced that some land, known as the Potters Field, would be set aside for the burial of the poor. In 2007 as part of the Schenectady Colonial celebrations, the Association held a dinner to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Vale mapping project</h2><br>
<p>In late 2006, interest in mapping the cemetery was indicated by several people connected with the cemetery. They developed the Vale mapping project. The project started in spring 2007, using GPS and techniques used in England and Scotland to locate each grave. The group intends to map all the graves and document them, to establish a full record before there is further damage or deterioration of many of the historic memorials.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>The information on notable burials has been extracted and précised from Katherine Olney Delain&#39;s Biographies of Notables at Vale Cemetery (2005).</p><br>
<h3>Engineers and scientists</h3><br>
<p>Ernst Alexanderson &mdash; came to the United States in 1901 to meet electrical wizard Charles Steinmetz. Developed the Alexanderson alternator, the first radio transmitter used to broadcast the human voice. Dr. Alexanderson was also instrumental in the development of television. Over his lifetime, Dr. Alexanderson received 344 patents, the last awarded in 1973 at age 94.</p><br>
<p>Ellis Family &mdash; The father and two sons were presidents of Schenectady Locomotive Works, later to become American Locomotive Company.</p><br>
<p>Ernst Julius Berg (1871–1941) &mdash; mathematician and electro-physicist. A pioneer of radio, he produced the first two-way radio voice program in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Clute Brothers &mdash; produced the gun turret motors for the first ironclad ship, the USS Monitor.</p><br>
<p>William D. Coolidge (1873–1975) &mdash; inventor of the modern X-ray tube, head of General Electric Development Center. He also developed the sodium vapor lamp and was holder of 83 patents.</p><br>
<p>Philip Dodge &mdash; inventor of the Linotype machine</p><br>
<p>Henry Ramsey &mdash; N.Y.S. engineer and surveyor in the 1830s, worked on the Erie Canal</p><br>
<p>Christian Steenstrup (1873–1955) &mdash; born in Denmark emigrated to the US in 1894. Designed the Monitor Top Refrigerator while at General Electric, held over 100 patents.</p><br>
<p>Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865–1923), &mdash; mathematician, inventor, and electrical engineer, was a pioneer and considered the leading electrical engineer in the United States during his lifetime. He was also a professor of electrical engineering and electrophysics at Union College, Schenectady.</p><br>
<p>Silas Watson Ford &mdash; paleontologist who made some of the most important discoveries of the 19th century about the Cambrian Period. Awarded an honorary master&#39;s degree by Union College in 1879.</p><br>
<h3>Military</h3><br>
<p>James S. Casey (1833–1899) &mdash; awarded Medal of Honor for action on 8 January 1877 at Wolf Mountain, Montana</p><br>
<p>William Horsfall &mdash; as captain, Company E, 18th New York Infantry. The Grand Army of the Republic post in Schenectady was named for him. He died leading a charge during the Battle of South Mountain, September 14, 1862.</p><br>
<p>Charles Lewis &mdash; fought in the Civil War and witnessed 1865 assassination of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865</p><br>
<p>David S. Proper &mdash; volunteer fire-fighter who enlisted in the 134th New York during the Civil War. He was killed at Gettysburg 1 July 1863. Donations from other firefighters paid for his body to be returned and buried here.</p><br>
<h3>Politicians and government</h3><br>
<p>Henry S. De Forest (1847–1917), &mdash; USA congressman (1911–1913) and Mayor of Schenectady for two terms</p><br>
<p>John DeGraff, &mdash; First Mayor of Schenectady 1836 and USA House of Representatives 1827–1839 and 1837–1839</p><br>
<p>Henry Glen (1739–1814) &mdash; first Town Clerk of Schenectady (1767–1809), member of New York Provincial Congress and New York State Assembly, New York Militia and Continental Army officer in American Revolution, member of United States House of Representatives, 1793–1801. (Location of grave not known. Presumed buried in First Dutch Churchyard. Remains there later relocated to Vale. Not all gravestones transported, so exact burial site not known.)</p><br>
<p>Oswald D. Heck, &mdash; elected to the New York State Assembly in 1937. Speaker of the house from 1939–1959. There is a gavel on his tombstone.</p><br>
<p>Harmanus Peek (1782–1838) &mdash; Early congressman and Representative 1819–1821)</p><br>
<p>Peter Rowe (1807–1876), &mdash; USA Representative (1853–1855) and Mayor of Schenectady (1846–1850)</p><br>
<p>Jackson Samuel, &mdash; New York State Supreme Court Justice</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>Charles "Chick" Evans (1889–1916), &mdash; Pitcher for the Boston Braves 1909–1910. his win-loss record for 1910 was 1–1, his run average was 5.23.</p><br>
<p>Frank E Wickware, &mdash; A World War I veteran, pitched for the Mohawk Giants in the Negro League. Once defeated baseball Hall of Fame member Walter Johnson</p><br>
<h3>Various</h3><br>
<p>Francis Dana, &mdash; Activist in the Underground Railway and contributor to the Albany Abolitionist newspaper.</p><br>
<p>Eliphalet Nott D.D., L.L.D. &mdash; Fourth President of Union College, serving 1804–1866. He established it as a national center for learning.</p><br>
<p>Robert Furman &mdash; Local businessman who donated land to form Central Park and helped establish Vale Cemetery. He introduced trolleys to Schenectady.</p><br>
<p>Westinghouse Family &mdash; George Westinghouse was well known in the farming industry having invented the thresher. George Westinghouse Jr., competitor of Thomas Edison, developed innovations in the electrical and railroad industries. He and his wife are buried in Arlington National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>James Cuff Swits &mdash; (known as Indian Jim), a Mohawk man more than 8 feet tall. He was well respected for his knowledge of herbs. A friend carved Indian Jim&#39;s likeness into his gravestone; he was buried at Potters Field.</p><br>
<h2>Burial facts</h2><br>
<p>The first burial was of four-year-old Noah Vibbard Van Vorst.</p><br>
<p>The oldest burial is that of Elias Van Guysling who died in 1695. His remains were relocated from the family plot on Van Slyk Island when General Electric enlarged their site.</p><br>
<p>The oldest grave marker is that of Jan Maybee, of Mabee House, who died in 1725.</p><br>
<h2>Sections</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery is divided into several sections, each having its own historic importance:</p><br>
<p>Veterans Section &mdash; veterans from the Civil War and Spanish–American War are buried here, as well as later ones.</p><br>
<p>First Reformed Church &mdash; The graves in this section predate the formation of Vale Cemetery. They were moved in 1879 from various small First Reformed Church cemeteries scattered throughout the Stockade. The oldest marker is that of Jan Mabee, survivor of the Schenectady Massacre, who died in 1725.</p><br>
<p>African Section &mdash; (now called the African-American Burying Ground), the original African Cemetery was located on Hamilton Hill. Judge Alonzo C. Paige purchased that area for real estate development. He purchased space in Vale and had the remains re-interred at his expense. His action protected the graves, as people had disturbed the graves on the hill by removing sandy soil for cement making.</p><br>
<p>Union College Plot &mdash; reserved for full professors of Union College, their spouses and unmarried children.</p><br>
<p>Green Street Section &mdash; represents the memorial style c. 1701–1830. The stones were removed from the old cemetery and reset here in 1879.</p><br>
<p>Christian Temple</p><br>
<p>German Methodist&mdash; this area was used by descendants of the early 18th-century German Palatine communities in the Mohawk Valley</p><br>
<p>Potters Field Area &mdash; The original area set aside for the burial of the poor</p><br>
<p>Old Ladies Home &mdash; Site for residents of the Home for the Friendless, a charity set up by Urania Nott, wife of Eliphalet Nott, the first President of Union College.</p><br>
<h2>Notable structures</h2><br>
<p>Christian Temple and GME (German Methodist Episcopal Church).</p><br>
<p>The Haigh mausoleum is adorned with a statue of a dog named Lion. The legend is that after his master died, Lion came to the mausoleum daily where he was cared for by cemetery staff. The statue is in Lion&#39;s memory.</p><br>
<p>Stanford Mausoleum &mdash; The family raised eight children, the most notable being Leland Stanford. In early life Leland was an attorney. He opened an office in Port Washington, Wisconsin, but shortly thereafter a fire destroyed his office and a $3,000 library. Leland decided to head west, where he joined his brothers in business. He made a fortune in the railroad industry, being a principal in the building of the transcontinental railroad. Stanford and his wife Jane founded Stanford University in memory of their son Leland Jr., who died young.</p><br>
<p>A Celtic Cross.</p><br>
<p>Holland Mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>Revolutionary War Memorial.</p><br>
<p>The Superintendents House (1889–1890) and Caretakers Cottage are listed as contributing buildings to the Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places. The North Terrace Gate, State Street Gate, and Brandywine Avenue Gate are listed as contributing structures.</p><br>
<p>Grand Teton is the highest mountain in Grand Teton National Park, in Northwest Wyoming, and a classic destination in American mountaineering.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Grand Teton, at 13,775 ft, is the highest point of the Teton Range, and the second highest peak in the USA state of Wyoming after Gannett Peak. The mountain is entirely within the Snake River drainage basin, which it feeds by several local creeks and glaciers. The Teton Range is a subrange of the Rocky Mountains, which extend from southern Alaska to northern New Mexico.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Name</h3><br>
<p>Grand Teton&#39;s name was first recorded as Mount Hayden by the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition of 1870. However, the name "the Grand Teton" had early currency. The Edition of April, 1901 of the USGS 1:125,000 quadrangle map of the area shows "Grand Teton" as the name of the peak. A United States National Park named "Grand Teton National Park" was established by law in 1929. By 1931, the name Grand Teton Peak was in such common usage that it was recognized by the USGS Board on Geographic Names. Another shift in usage led the Board to shorten the name on maps to Grand Teton in 1970.</p><br>
<p>The origin of the name is disputed. The most common explanation is that "Grand Teton" means "large teat" or "large nipple" in French, named by either French-Canadian or Iroquois members of an expedition led by Donald McKenzie of the North West Company. However, other historians disagree, and claim that the mountain was named after the Teton Sioux tribe of Native Americans.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>There is a disagreement over who first climbed Grand Teton. Nathaniel P. Langford and James Stevenson claimed to have reached the summit on July 29, 1872. However, some believe their description and sketches match the summit of The Enclosure, a side peak of Grand Teton. The Enclosure is named after a man-made palisade of rocks on its summit, probably constructed by Native Americans. Mountaineer and author Fred Beckey believes that the two climbed the Enclosure because their description matches it, because their description does not accurately describe the true summit, because their account does not mention the formidable difficulties found just above the Upper Saddle, and finally, because it was traditional with members of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 to build a cairn in such a place, but no such cairn was found when William O. Owen reached the summit in 1898. In all likelihood, The Enclosure was first climbed by Native Americans as suggested by Langford in 1873. Supporters of Owen included The Wyoming Legislature and Paul Petzoldt, former pioneer American climber. Ironically among Langford&#39;s supporters was Franklin Spalding, who led the ascent to the summit and tossed the rope that allowed Owen and the others to follow.</p><br>
<p>Mountaineer and author Leigh Ortenburger researched the controversy in depth, using original source material, for his 1965 climbers guidebook. Ortenburger concluded: "Since historical proof&#39; is extremely unlikely to be forthcoming for either side of the argument, perhaps the best way of regarding the problem, short of a detailed analysis of the probabilities, is to state that in 1872 Langford and Stevenson may have climbed the Grand Teton, in 1893 Kieffer, Newell, and Rhyan may have climbed it, and in 1898 Spalding, Owen, Peterson, and Shive definitely did succeed in reaching the summit."</p><br>
<h3>First Ski / Snowboard Descents</h3><br>
<p>First Male Alpine Descent-Bill Briggs, 1971</p><br>
<p>First Female Alpine Descent- Kristen Ulmer, 1997</p><br>
<p>First Male Telemark Descent- Rick Wyatt, 1982</p><br>
<p>First Female Telemark Descent- A.J. Cargill, 2004,</p><br>
<p>First Male Snowboard Descent- Stephen Koch, 1989</p><br>
<p>First Female Snowboard Descent- Dani deRuyter, 2010</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>Grand Teton can be climbed via the Owen-Spalding route (II, 5.4). A short section of the route is highly exposed and previous alpine climbing experience is recommended before attempting an ascent; nonetheless, athletes with no prior climbing experience regularly reach the summit. The Owen-Spalding route is named for the climbers who claim to have made the first ascent: William Owen, Franklin Spalding, Frank Peterson, and John Shive. There is some debate as to which group made the first ascent; see that discussion. Notwithstanding the first-ascent controversy, this climbing route has been firmly named after William Owen and Franklin Spalding. The Owen-Spalding route begins at the Lower Saddle which is reached by walking from the Lupine Meadows Trailhead to Garnet Canyon and then up to the Lower Saddle on a trail that&#39;s fairly well defined. The more technical & exposed part of the climb begins at the Upper Saddle.</p><br>
<p>The most popular route up the mountain is via the Upper Exum Ridge Route (II, 5.5) on the Exum Ridge, an exposed route first climbed by Glenn Exum, co-founder of Exum Mountain Guides. Much of the climbing is fourth class, with one wide step from the end of Wall Street Ledge to the Ridge comprising the first stretch of technical climbing. Other notable pitches include the Golden Stair (immediately following the traverse from Wall Street Ledge), the Friction Pitch (considered the most difficult pitch on the route), and the V-Pitch. The direct start of the Exum Ridge using the Lower Exum Ridge Route (III, 5.7,) is considered a mountaineering classic and is featured in the historic climbing text Fifty Classic Climbs of North America.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the Direct Exum Ridge Route, the "Classic Climbs" listing also features the North Ridge (IV, 5.8) and North Face with Direct Finish (IV, 5.8), both of which ascend the dramatic northern aspect of the peak. The Grand Teton has the most routes listed in the Fifty Classic Climbs of North America of any peak. The only other to have more than one route listed is El Capitan, with The Nose and Salathé Wall. These inclusions have helped maintain the fame of the peak in the climbing community. Since the Grand Teton&#39;s first ascent, 38 routes with 58 variations have been established.</p><br>
<h2>Ski descent</h2><br>
<p>The Grand Teton has been skied by five routes, each requiring at least one rappel. The first descent on skis was made by Bill Briggs in the spring of 1971 down the East Face and Stettner Couloir, it has since been renamed the Briggs Route. This descent required a free rappel, which was completed with skis on. More casually, skiing is possible from the crest of the saddle between the Grand and the Middle Teton, continuously into the valley floor.</p><br>
<p>Mount Luofu is a sacred mountain situated on the north bank of the Dongjiang in the northwest of Boluo County, Huizhou in Guangdong Province, China. It covers 250 kilometers.</p><br>
<p>Among the many temples on Mt. Luofu is Wa Sau Toi, which is linked to both the Dragon and Bak Mei styles of Kung Fu.</p><br>
<p>The Mok Gar master Lin Yin-Tang studied meditation and traditional Chinese medicine at the Temple of Emptiness on Mt. Luofu.</p><br>
<p>Choy Fook, one of the teachers of Choy Lee Fut founder Chan Heung, is said to have been a monk on Mt. Luofu.</p><br>
<p>In the Eastern Jin dynasty, the renowned Daoist Ge Hong once refined elixirs here. During Ge Hong&#39;s stay on Mt. Luofu, four huts were built, and subsequently enlarged into temples, namely the southern Temple of Great Emptiness (which was changed into the Temple of Emptiness afterwards), the western Temple of the Yellow Dragon, the eastern Temple of the Nine Heavens, and the northern Temple of Junkets.</p><br>
<p>In the Qing dynasty, a branch of the Dragon Gate Sect propagated its teachings at the Temple of Junkets. During the reign of the Guangxu Emperor, the abbot of the temple, Chen Jiaoyou, wrote Evolution of the Daoism of Changchun&#39;s Lineage, an important work on the history of transmission and inheritance of the Dragon Gate Sect.</p><br>
<p>It was said that there were nine guan (temple), 18 si (temple) and 22 an (temple) on Mt. Luofu, but after the Ming and Qing dynasties, many of them collapsed and only five guan and five si remain nowadays. The five Daoist temples are the Temple of Emptiness, the Temple of Junkets, the Temple of the Nine Heavens, the Temple of the White Crane, and the Temple of the Yellow Dragon. The Temple of Emptiness is one of the national key temples acknowledged by the State Council.</p><br>
<p>There are many relics of Ge Hong on Mt. Luofu, such as the "Well of Longevity" from which he obtained water, the alchemical kitchen for refining elixirs, and the pond for washing elixirs. The Grotto of Vermillion Brightness on the mountain is said to be the place where Ge Hong cultivated Dao and attained immortality. It is situated in the forest in the deep valley below Mt. Luofu, where everything is in deep stillness, except for gurgling streams.</p><br>
<p>Besides, there is a "Boots-Losing House", which is said to be the place where Ge Hong and his teacher Bo Jing used to discuss scriptures. One day, after talking until daybreak, two swallows flew toward them. However, they turned out to be a pair of boots instead of swallows, after being entangled. There is a stone tablet above the house. It is about five-chi long, half-chi wide and one-chi high. It lies against a huge stone like a bed and is completely in the shade.</p><br>
<p>Lake Artemesia is a man-made lake in Prince George&#39;s County, Maryland. It is part of the Lake Artemesia Natural Area in College Park and Berwyn Heights. The lake itself covers an area of 38 acres , and the surrounding natural area is administered by Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission and includes aquatic gardens, fishing piers, and hiker-biker trails.</p><br>
<p>The lake, located between Indian Creek and Paint Branch, was constructed during the completion of the Washington Metro Green Line, which runs alongside the lake. Sand and gravel were excavated from the site of a smaller lake and the surrounding area to construct the rail beds and parking lots for the College Park-University of Maryland and Greenbelt Metrorail stations. Metro saved $10 million by sourcing the material locally and in return spent $8 million constructing the lake and natural area to repair the excavation damage. During the construction phase, signs identified the site as "Lake Metro."</p><br>
<p>The park is named for Artemesia N. Drefs, who donated ten lots to the county for preservation as open space in 1972. The smaller lake that existed on the site prior to the Metro-funded reconstruction was already named Lake Artemesia after Artemesias mother and grandmother, who shared the same name. Drefss father, Arthur, surveyed the land for his Lakeland development in the 1890s; according to Drefs, the pre-existing lake was originally stocked with bass but was later used to raise goldfish.</p><br>
<p>The 1.35 mile hiker-biker trail around the lake is part of the Anacostia Tributary Trail System and East Coast Greenway.</p><br>
<p>The Conference House  was built before 1680 and is located near the southernmost tip of New York State on Staten Island, which became known as "Billops Point" in the 18th century. The Staten Island Peace Conference was held here on September 11, 1776, which unsuccessfully attempted to end the American Revolutionary War. The house, a National and New York City Landmark, is the only pre-Revolutionary manor house still surviving in New York City. It is located at Conference House Park overlooking Raritan Bay. The house is also located within the Wards Point Conservation Area, separately added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<h2>Before the American Revolution</h2><br>
<p>Captain Christopher Billopp, after years of distinguished service in the Royal Navy, came to America in 1674. He was granted a land patent on 932 acres (3.7 km²) on the southernmost tip of Staten Island. Archaeological evidence, including shell middens and digs conducted by The American Museum of Natural History in 1895, have shown that the Raritan band of the Lenape camped in the area and used the location as a burial ground. The burial ground known as Burial Ridge is the largest pre-European burial ground in New York City.</p><br>
<p>As the legend goes, Capt. Billopp&#39;s seamanship secured Staten Island to New York, rather than to New Jersey: the island would belong to New York if the captain could circumnavigate it in one day – which he proceeded to do.</p><br>
<p>In 1677, the fortunes of colonial service took Capt. Billopp to New Castle on the Delaware River, where he commanded the local garrison. Upon appointment of Thomas Dongan as governor of the colony of New York, he returned to Staten Island and became active in the local government. He was further rewarded by another patent, expanding his Staten Island property to 1,600 acres (6.4 km²).</p><br>
<p>It is difficult to ascertain exactly when his manor house was built, but one surviving map shows that a building existed on the site of the Conference House before 1680. The house was passed down to his great grandson Christopher Billop, who was commissioned a colonel and led loyalist forces against the patriots in the American Revolution. After the cessation of hostilities and British withdrawal from the former colonies, the house was confiscated by the state of New York with no recompense to the Billopp family.</p><br>
<h2>Peace Conference</h2><br>
<p>On September 11, 1776, Lord Howe, commander in chief of British forces in America, arranged to meet with representatives of the Continental Congress in a peace conference aimed at halting the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge rowed over from patriot-held Perth Amboy, New Jersey. The meeting lasted for three hours and ended with the Americans politely declining Howe&#39;s offer, leading to another seven years of conflict.</p><br>
<h2>Billop's Point</h2><br>
<p>The Conference House is situated on the southernmost point of New York State; this point of land, jutting out into Raritan Bay, was known as "Billops Point" during the 18th century. It was from Billops Point that a raid on October 25, 1779, known as "Simcoes Raid", was conducted upon patriot-held New Jersey by John Graves Simcoe, leader of the Tory unit the Queens Rangers. In A History Of The Operations Of A Partisan Corps Called The Queen&#39;s Rangers, which he wrote after the war, he mentions:</p><br>
<p>The batteaux, and boats, which were appointed to be at Billops-point, so as to pass the whole over by twelve oclock at night, did not arrive till three o&#39;clock in the morning.</p><br>
<p>Billop&#39;s point is mentioned in the journal of Major André:</p><br>
<p>Oct. 25th The Regiments at Amboy received Orders to strike their tents and send them with their baggage to the waters side. Those at Staten Island had orders to leave theirs standing, and repair by 8 oclock in the evening to Billop&#39;s Point.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Visitors</h2><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin</p><br>
<p>John Adams</p><br>
<p>Edward Rutledge</p><br>
<p>Lord Howe</p><br>
<p>Major General Charles Grey: leader of British forces at the Paoli Massacre</p><br>
<p>John Graves Simcoe, leader of the Queen&#39;s Rangers and the founder of Toronto.</p><br>
<h2>Units Camped at Bentley Manor</h2><br>
<p>844th Foot, later the Essex Regiment and now the Royal Anglian Regiment</p><br>
<p>Hessian</p><br>
<p>Prince Charles Regiment: Prince Charles William Ferdinand</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>One hundred years after the conference, the house was abandoned and vandalized. After the revolution, most of the Billopps had gone to Canada. In 1901 Assemblyman Van Name of Richmond County, New York introduced a bill for the preservation of the house. In 1926 the house was in danger of being razed. Through the efforts of a group of concerned citizens, a non-profit organization, "The Conference House Association", was formed, and the house was saved. In 1929 the Municipal Assembly of the City of New York placed the house under the association&#39;s aegis. The Conference House Park was created in 1926.</p><br>
<p>The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Mjøsa is Norway&#39;s largest lake, as well as one of the deepest lakes in Norway and in Europe. It is the fourth-deepest lake in Norway. It is located in the southern part of Norway, about 100 km north of Oslo. Its main tributary is Gudbrandsdalslågen in the north; the only distributary is Vorma in the south. Inflows would theoretically need 5.6 years to fill the lake. With an average depth of 153 meters most of the lakes volume is under sea level. Average outflow  is 316 m/s or 9959 million m.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Robert Malthus travelled through Norway in 1799 and his diaries from the trip includes a description of Mjøsa. Malthus wrote that Mjøsa appears as both lake and river because the shores are defined by mountains and where the valley becomes wider the water fills the space. Below Minde (Minnesund) the lake only appears like a river and is called Vorma on the map, according to Malthus.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>From its southernmost point at Minnesund in Eidsvoll to its northernmost point in Lillehammer it is 117 km long. At its widest, near Hamar, it is 15 km wide. It is 365 km² in area and its volume is estimated at 56 km³; normally its surface is 123 metres above sea level, and its greatest depth is 468 metres. Its total coastline is estimated at 273 km, of which 30% is built up. Dams built on the distribuary of Vorma in 1858, 1911, 1947, and 1965 raised the level by approximately 3.6 metres in total. In the last 200 years, 20 floods have been registered that added 7 metres to the level of Mjøsa. Several of these floods inundated the city of Hamar.</p><br>
<p>The cities of Hamar, Gjøvik, and Lillehammer were founded along the shores of the lake. Before the construction of railways past the lake, it was an important transport route. Today, aside from minor leisure boating and the steamship Skibladner, there is no water traffic on the lake. Most of its shores are dominated by rolling agricultural areas, among them some of the most fertile grainlands in Norway. The main train line, the Dovre Line between Oslo and Trondheim, goes along its eastern shore, making stops in Hamar and Lillehammer. From the south European route E6 runs along the eastern shore of the lake until the Mjøsa Bridge connects Moelv on the east with Biri on the west.</p><br>
<h2>Mjøskastellet</h2><br>
<p>The largest and only island is Helgøya. Except for Helgøya, Mjøsa only contains small islets. The most interesting of these is Steinsholmen, which holds the ruins of Mjøskastellet, a medieval citadel dating from the 13th century. Established by King Haakon IV of Norway, it was first mentioned in a letter dated 1234. Peter Andreas Blix documented the site and made drawings in 1897. Hedmark Museum has a future archaeological plan for the site.</p><br>
<h2>Fish</h2><br>
<p>Lake Mjøsa has 20 species of fish. Among the most common are pike, European perch, common roach, greyling, and the hundertrout, a brown trout which can reach a weight more than 20 kg. Another common species is the European smelt, which is the most important baitfish for the predators. Historically, the most economically significant species is the lågsild (European cisco).</p><br>
<h2>The name</h2><br>
<p>The name (Norse Mjǫrs, Proto-Norse *Merso) must be very old. The meaning is, maybe, the bright/shiny one. (If *mer- is related to the English word mere clear, bright, and -so is a suffix.)</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>In 1975, the 14th World Scout Jamboree was held on its shores. More than 17.000 Scouts from 91 countries took part.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, a Swedish team lifted a Halifax bomber that was shot down in World War II.</p><br>
<p>Saint John  is one of the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea and a constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands , an unincorporated territory of the United States.</p><br>
<p>At 50 km the smallest of the three main US Virgin Islands, Saint John is located about four miles east of Saint Thomas, the location of the territorys capital, Charlotte Amalie. It is also four miles southwest of Tortola, part of the British Virgin Islands. Its largest settlement is Cruz Bay with a population of 2,700. St. Johns nickname is Love City.</p><br>
<p>Since 1956, approximately 60% of the island is protected as Virgin Islands National Park, administered by the United States National Park Service. The economy is based on tourism.</p><br>
<p>Saint John is 50.8 km² (19.61 sq mi) in area with a population of 4,170 (2010 census).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Saint John was first settled by the Taíno Indians who migrated north from coastal areas of present-day Colombia and Venezuela around AD 300. The Arawak inhabited the island until around the year AD 1300, when they were driven off by the more aggressive and warlike Carib. Extensive archaeological work started in 1996 at Cinnamon Bay. The artifacts from this dig are being studied and are expected to yield more detailed information on pre-Columbian civilization in the US Virgin Islands.</p><br>
<p>Explorer Christopher Columbus, traveling on behalf of the Spanish Crown, is credited with being the first European to see the Virgin Islands in 1493, during his second voyage to the New World. A Catholic, he named the group of numerous islands as Once Mil Virgenes (Eleven Thousand Virgins), in honor of the feast day of Saint Ursula and the 11,000 virgins who were martyred with her.</p><br>
<h3>Colonization and settlement</h3><br>
<p>The Danish West India and Guinea Company represented the first Europeans to settle the island in 1718. They are also credited with naming the island Saint John (Danish: Sankt Jan). The Danish crown took full control of this and nearby colonies in 1754, including those founded on the similarly named islands of Saint Thomas and Saint Croix.</p><br>
<p>Sugar cane plantations, such as the famous Annaberg Sugar Plantation, were established in great numbers on Saint John; the intense heat and fertile soil provided ideal growing conditions. The establishment of sugarcane plantations created a high demand for labor. The indigenous Carib and Arawak were initially used as slave labor but their population was quickly decimated by new infectious diseases.</p><br>
<p>The planters imported many slaves from Africa in an established slave trade dominated by Portugal in the early years, but which Britain also entered. In 1733 Saint John was the site of one of the first significant slave rebellions in the New World. Enslaved Akwamu from the Gold Coast rebelled and took control of the island for six months before being defeated by a combination of better armed forces.</p><br>
<p>The Danish defeated the enslaved Africans with help from French colonists of Martinique. Instead of submitting to captivity and slavery, more than a dozen men and women shot and killed themselves before the French forces reached them. It is estimated that by 1775, slaves outnumbered the Danish settlers on Saint John by a ratio of 5:1. Denmark finally abolished slavery in Saint John and its other islands on July 3, 1848.</p><br>
<h3>Purchase</h3><br>
<p>In 1917, during the First World War, the United States purchased the USA Virgin Islands for $25 million from the Danish government in order to establish a naval base. It was intended to prevent expansion of the German Empire into the Western Hemisphere. As part of the negotiations for this deal, the US agreed to recognize Denmark&#39;s claim to Greenland, which they had previously disputed.</p><br>
<p>During the 20th century, private investors acquired properties on the island, redeveloping some plantation houses as vacation resorts, such as Laurence Rockefeller&#39;s Caneel Bay Resort. The islands became popular and tourism and related service jobs developed as a major part of the economy.</p><br>
<h3>Weather Events</h3><br>
<p>In September of 2017, St. John was hit by Hurricane Irma. The category 5 storm forced roughly half of the island&#39;s 4,500 residents to evacuate and caused power outages that are expected to last for months.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>Since 1917, the USA Virgin Islands are an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States. Its residents are USA citizens, but they cannot vote in presidential elections.</p><br>
<p>Until 1970, governors of the territory were appointed by the US President. Since that year, residents of the island have elected a territorial governor and lieutenant governor, and fifteen senators to the legislature, representing all three islands. Seven are elected from the district of Saint Croix, seven from the district of Saint Thomas and Saint John, and one senator at-large (who must be a resident of Saint John) are elected for two-year terms to the unicameral Virgin Islands Legislature.</p><br>
<p>Residents of the Virgin Islands also elect a delegate to the US Congress, who has non-voting status in that body.</p><br>
<p>Saint John has no local government; however, the Governor appoints an administrator for the island. Having no official powers, this figure acts more as an adviser to the Governor and as a spokesperson for the Governor&#39;s policies.</p><br>
<p>The main political parties in the USA Virgin Islands are the Democratic Party of the Virgin Islands, the Independent Citizens Movement (ICM), and the Republican Party of the Virgin Islands. Additional candidates run as independents.</p><br>
<h3>Voting</h3><br>
<p>Saint John is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2010 USA Census):</p><br>
<p>Central (pop. 779)</p><br>
<p>Coral Bay (pop. 634)</p><br>
<p>Cruz Bay (pop. 2,706)</p><br>
<p>East End (pop. 51)</p><br>
<p>Activists filed a lawsuit on September 20, 2011 in the federal US District Court of the Virgin Islands seeking the right to be represented in Congress and to vote for USA President. The case is Civil No. 3:11-cv-110, Charles v. USA Federal Elections Commission et al. The case alleges the 1917 Congress, with all-white members, denied the right to vote to island residents due to racial discrimination, as the island had a majority of people of color. The case was dismissed on August 20, 2012.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The main export of Saint John used to be sugar cane, which was produced in great quantity using African and Indian slave labor. However, this industry declined after the abolition of slavery, as it was dependent on free labor to be profitable. In addition, in that period, it had to compete with sugar produced in other areas, including by the use of sugar beets in northern locations.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>The economy of St. John is almost entirely dependent on tourism. The island has hundreds of rental villas as well as the following hotels and resorts:</p><br>
<p>Westin St. John Resort</p><br>
<p>Caneel Bay Resort</p><br>
<p>Grande Bay Resort</p><br>
<p>Gallows Point Resort</p><br>
<p>Concordia Eco-Resort</p><br>
<p>Cruz Bay Boutique Hotel</p><br>
<p>The Inn at Tamarind Court</p><br>
<p>St. John Inn</p><br>
<p>Estate Lindholm</p><br>
<p>Lavender Hill Suites</p><br>
<p>Camping is available at Cinnamon Bay Resort & Campground inside Virgin Islands National Park.</p><br>
<p>Numerous shops and restaurants serving both residents and tourists are located in Cruz Bay and Coral Bay.</p><br>
<p>St. John is a popular stop for day and term boat charters from the United States Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and the British Virgin Islands. Individual and group boat charters are widely available on St. John and island hopping is a favorite local and visitor activity. Popular day excursions include bar hopping or snorkeling at Christmas Cove, Jost Van Dyke, Buck Island National Wildlife Refuge, Tortola, Norman Island, Virgin Gorda, Water Island, Lovongo Cay, Cooper Island, and Peter Island. Mooring and anchoring locations are available in most bays around St. John for both day use and overnight stays.</p><br>
<h4>Virgin Islands National Park</h4><br>
<p>In 1956, Laurance Rockefeller donated his extensive lands on the island to the United States&#39; National Park Service, under the condition that the lands had to be protected from future development. The remaining portion, the Caneel Bay Resort, operates on a lease arrangement with the NPS, which owns the underlying land.</p><br>
<p>The boundaries of the Virgin Islands National Park include 75% of the island, but various in-holdings within the park boundary (e.g., Peter Bay) reduce the park lands to 60% of the island acreage.</p><br>
<p>Much of the island&#39;s waters, coral reefs, and shoreline have been protected by being included in the national park. This protection was expanded in 2001, when the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument was created.</p><br>
<h3>Transport</h3><br>
<p>While St. John does not have an airport, the island is served by Cyril E. King Airport on nearby St. Thomas. There used to be a seaplane base in the town of Cruz Bay. Antilles Airboats provided regular service until it was sold by Maureen O&#39;Hara. The Virgin Islands Seaplane Shuttle also used to offer services to that seaplane base using Grumman Mallard air boats prior to Hurricane Hugo.</p><br>
<p>A ferry service runs hourly from Red Hook, St. Thomas, thrice daily from Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, and daily from Tortola; regular ferries also operate from Virgin Gorda, Jost Van Dyke and Anegada.</p><br>
<p>Cars and cargo are transported to the island via barge. Two companies offer barge service between Red Hook, St. Thomas and Cruz Bay, St. John. The barges operate hourly during daylight hours. Although prohibited by Virgin Islands law, some rental car companies allow their vehicles to use the car ferry. This is because the USA District Court deemed the law to violate the Interstate Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. However, as of 2017, the unconstitutional law is still technically on the books, but the Government of the Virgin Islands does not enforce it. Car rental companies are located throughout Cruz Bay, most within easy walking distance of the ferry dock.</p><br>
<p>Taxis are widely available on St. John to provide transport to beaches, hotels, and vacation villas. Water taxi service is also available from Dolphin Water Taxi.</p><br>
<p>VITRAN public bus service runs hourly on weekdays between Cruz Bay and Salt Pond Bay via Centerline Road.</p><br>
<h4>Major port town</h4><br>
<p>In the colonial era, Coral Bay was the hub of economic activity on the island. Its natural port offered protection to the sailing ships of the day. In addition, it was an easy sail by smaller boats, with minimal tacking, to the nearby British Virgin Islands. Until the late 20th century, the residents of Coral Bay and East End had easier and more frequent access to Tortola than did those of either Cruz Bay or St. Thomas.</p><br>
<p>Today, Cruz Bay is the port of entry to St. John. Cargo and car barges use The Theovald Eric Moorehead Dock and Terminal. Domestic ferries use the Loredon L Boynes Dock in central Cruz Bay. International ferries use the United States Customs and Immigration dock at the Victor William Sewer Marine Facility.</p><br>
<p>Cruise ships visit Cruz Bay regularly during the winter, although they must anchor and deliver guests via tender. St. John is also a popular day excursion for cruise ship passengers at port in St. Thomas or Tortola.</p><br>
<p>The waters surrounding the US Virgin Islands are patrolled by United States Coast Guard cutters out of Miami, Florida, and San Juan, Puerto Rico.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>St. Thomas-St. John School District operates schools for the island residents.</p><br>
<p>Saint John has one public school, Julius E. Sprauve (JESS). Private and parochial schools include Gifft Hill School (formerly Pine Peace and Coral Bay), Saint John Christian Academy, Saint John Methodist School, and the Saint John Montessori School.</p><br>
<p>The only school that includes a high school is Gifft Hill, along with their programs in elementary and middle school. The only other middle school on the island is at JESS, which also has an elementary program. The public high school for St. John students is Ivanna Eudora Kean High School located in Red Hook, St. Thomas.</p><br>
<h2>Fiction</h2><br>
<p>In John Grisham&#39;s novel The Pelican Brief, the heroes escape to Saint John: specifically, a small cottage in Maho Bay, along the North Shore.</p><br>
<p>Hawksnest Bay was the filming location for the Alien beach scene towards the ending of the movie Contact (1997).</p><br>
<p>Grandma Raised the Roof by Ethel Walbridge McCully. Authors own story of building her dream home on St. Johns VI and defending it from being acquired by the National Park Service, in the early 1950s.</p><br>
<p>Kings County Savings Bank is a New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission-designated building in the Williamsburg, Brooklyn section of New York City. It is an example of French Second Empire-style architecture. Construction of the building began in 1860, to designs of William H. Wilcox of Brooklyn, in partnership with prominent New York architect Gamaliel King, working as King & Wilcox. The structure was continuously occupied by banks until the 1990s. The Williamsburg Art & Historical Center has operated the building since 1996.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a New York City landmark in 1966, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Kings County Savings Bank building was built between 1860 and 1867. It is 43.5 by on the outside dimension and is constructed of Dorchester sandstone. It has three main floors, each a single large room. On the first and second floors, the main rooms contain six tall Corinthian columns, formed of cast iron, while the third floor is entirely open. The first floor retains its massive gas chandeliers and ornately carved woodwork.</p><br>
<p>Although the designer of the bank, King&#39;s partner William H. Wilcox, is relatively unknown, the building is a superb example of the French Second Empire style. For example, the building displays the characteristic Mansard roof, which conceals the fourth story attic.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Kings County Savings Institution was chartered on April 10, 1860. It carried out business in a building called Washington Hall until it purchased the lot on the corner of Bedford Avenue and Broadway and erected a permanent home.</p><br>
<p>The Kings County Savings Bank has long been considered a landmark of Williamsburg. By 1900, during the construction of the Williamsburg Bridge, the neighborhood had changed, and the Bank building was already seen as an icon of "old Williamsburg." It remains one of the most important historical landmarks in Williamsburg, and was recognized by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1966, the seventh building to be so designated. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1980</p><br>
<p>“The Kings County Savings Bank is an outstanding example of French Second Empire architecture, displaying a wealth of ornament and diverse architectural elements. A business building of imposing grandeur, the Kings County Savings Bank "represents a period of conspicuous display in which it was not considered vulgar, at least by the people in power, to boast openly of one&#39;s wealth. From its scale and general character there is nothing, on the outside, that would distinguish the Kings County Savings Bank from a millionaires mansion." (from History Preserved: New York City Landmarks & Historic Districts, Harmon H. Gladstone & Martha Dalyrmple, Simon & Schuster, 1974).</p><br>
<p>The building remained in continuous bank ownership and use for well over a century. It ceased to be used as a bank in the 1980s.</p><br>
<h2>Bank timeline</h2><br>
<p>From the public records:</p><br>
<p>April 10, 1860 &ndash; New York State chartered Kings County Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>December 31, 1968 &ndash; merge with State Union Square Savings Bank, name changed to United Mutual Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>September 24, 1982 &ndash; merge with State American Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>July 29, 1983 &ndash; converted to Federal American Savings Bank, F.S.B.</p><br>
<p>December 29, 1989 &ndash; convert to State American Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>June 12, 1992 &ndash; LID Sold To Ridgewood Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>October 20, 1995 &ndash; liquidated</p><br>
<h2>Williamsburg Art & Historical Center</h2><br>
<p>Currently the building houses the Williamsburg Art & Historical Center, a not-for profit art organization founded by artist Yuko Nii in October 1996. The Center presents art exhibitions, performances and cultural events as well as lectures, seminars and educational programs of both local and international interest. It also preserves and displays historical art and artifacts.</p><br>
<p>On July 31, 2008, John B. Manbeck, the official Brooklyn Borough Historian from 1993 to 2002, said in an article in the Brooklyn Eagle:</p><br>
<p>Art in Williamsburg has made great strides. In fact, all Williamsburg has progressed, undoubtedly because of its attraction to artists. Much of the credit must be placed on the doorstep of the director of the Williamsburg Art & Historical Center, Yuko Nii. The center operates out of the former Kings County Savings Bank Building (1867) and celebrated an infusion of a $500,000 capital funding grant from the city."</p><br>
<p>In 2009 ownership of the building was transferred to the Yuko Nii Foundation.</p><br>
<p>South Tarawa  is the capital and hub of the Republic of Kiribati and home to approximately half of Kiribati&#39;s total population. The South Tarawa population centre consists of all the small islets from Betio in the West to Bonriki in the East, connected by the South Tarawa main road; with a population of 50,182.</p><br>
<p>South Tarawa is home to most of the Government, commercial and education facilities in Kiribati including the Port and the High Court at Betio, the State House, Government Ministries and foreign High Commissions in Bairiki, a University of the South Pacific campus in Teaorereke, the House of Assembly in Ambo, the Kiribati Teacher College and King George V and Elaine Bernachi School, the Government High School, is in Bikenibeu, and the central hospital in Nawerewere. The Roman Catholic diocese is based in Teaorereke, the Kiribati Protestant Church (Congregational) in Antebuka, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Eita.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>At the local government level, South Tarawa has two administrative subdivisions:</p><br>
<p>Betio Town Council (or BTC), on Betio</p><br>
<p>Teinainano Urban Council (or TUC), from Bairiki to Tanaea (The meaning of Teinainano is "down of the mast", alluding to the sail-shape of the atoll).</p><br>
<p>Buota, which is part of North Tarawa and administered by the Eutan Tarawa Council (or ETC), is linked by road to South Tarawa and is experiencing many similar issues of rapid population growth, urbanisation and environmental degradation.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>South Tarawa is a string of islets between the Tarawa Lagoon to the north, with a maximum depth of 25 m,</p><br>
<p>and the Pacific Ocean to the south, with a depth of up to 4,000 m.</p><br>
<p>The island has been built from sediments from the lagoon.</p><br>
<p>The process of soil accumulation is driven by the dominant easterly trade winds,</p><br>
<p>and can be reversed during extended periods of westerly winds during El Niño–Southern Oscillations.</p><br>
<p>All of these islets are now joined by causeways, forming one long islet on the reef along the southern side of the Tarawa Lagoon. Most of South Tarawa is less than 3 m above sea level with an average width of only 450 m.</p><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<p>At the time of the 1978 Census, South Tarawa had a population of 17,921 with most residents living in the main population centres of Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibeu. Since Kiribati became independent in 1979, the population of South Tarawa has almost tripled, and now stands at 50,182 people. All of South Tarawa is now urbanised, and is effectively one continuous settlement from the Northeastern end of the island, Tanaea, to its Southwestern end at Betio. Buota in North Tarawa is also connected to the South Tarawa main road and is also growing rapidly.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tarawa island is central to Kiribati mythology and culture, but life on South Tarawa was little different to on other islands before the island was selected as the seat of colonial government for the Protectorate of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands.</p><br>
<p>Betio was the location of the Battle of Tarawa.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The highest point on South Tarawa is only a few meters above sea level, making the island extremely vulnerable to climate change and natural disasters. Already the effects of rising sea-levels and associated soil salination are starting to threaten limited fresh water supplies.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The weather in South Tarawa is warm and humid all year round and average rainfalls are relatively high. However rainfall is very unpredictable, varying with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, and South Tarawa can go for many months with almost no rain during La Niña cycles.</p><br>
<h3>Water</h3><br>
<p>South Tarawa has very limited water resources for its rapidly growing population. During the frequent droughts, the only source of water is the shallow freshwater lens which permeates the coral rock of the atoll. The water lenses at Bonriki and Buota have been declared as water reserves, and have a combined sustainable yield of 1,300 m per day. Other previously declared water reserves have been relinquished for urbanisation, or abandoned due to over-pumping and pollution from human settlement.</p><br>
<p>Water from the Bonriki and Buota reserves is distributed via a reticulated network to South Tarawa households, however the poor condition of the network and the limited water supply mean that water can only be supplied to each village for around 2 hours every two days. Most schools and community buildings have no water supply at all, and many households rely on polluted groundwater due to the shortage of treated water.</p><br>
<p>Because of the shortage of fresh water, sanitation systems must use saltwater for flushing. The current sanitation network on South Tarawa is performing very poorly, and a major project is underway to rehabilitate the system and improve sanitation and public hygiene.</p><br>
<h3>Coastal erosion</h3><br>
<p>The Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agriculture Development (MELAD) is involved in the replanting of mangroves in selected sites to help against coastal erosion; however, a lot more is required to protect many of the sites already eroded away on South Tarawa including islets that once were protected with mangrove and iron-wood (tengea) trees. It is unclear how much of the erosion currently being experienced on South Tarawa is due to sea level rise and how much is due to human activities, such as building inappropriate seawalls, and mining sand and gravel from the beaches and foreshores. However coastal erosion will accelerate in future, due to climate change related sea level rise.</p><br>
<h3>Land availability and overcrowding</h3><br>
<p>The land area of South Tarawa is officially recorded as 3,896 acres or 15.76 square km. However much of this land is not available for use, including the water reserve and runway, the causeways, and a large area of reclaimed land at Temwaiku, the Eastern corner of the atoll, which is too swampy and low-lying. If these areas are excluded, the land area of South Tarawa is only just over 1,000 hectares (10 square km or 2,500 acres) and the population density of 49 people per hectare or 4,905 per square km is almost equal to the density of London (5,100 people per km) and twice the density of Sydney, Auckland or New York.</p><br>
<p>Multi-storey buildings are very uncommon on South Tarawa. The high population is accommodated through large household sizes, with an average of 7.3 people per household, on small land plots. Most land is owned by the original families or kain Tarawa, although in the main centres of Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibeu there are large areas of land on long term lease to the Government. Without access to family lands or Government housing, many South Tarawa residents have no choice but to become squatters, and disputes over land are common.</p><br>
<p>South Tarawa and especially Betio have high rates of respiratory infections, diarrhoea, and dysentery, all of which have been linked to overcrowding. Unsustainable development in South Tarawa is a concern to the Government and to Kiribatis aid partners. Anote Tongs administration aims to ease the problem in the country&#39;s main urban centre by encouraging people to stay and to resettle in outer islands, and has invested in facilities such as the South Kiribati Hospital to spread institutions and services out around the islands and relieve South Tarawa from overcrowding.</p><br>
<p>Reasons land not available for use:</p><br>
<p>Bonriki; Water reserve, airport</p><br>
<p>Temwaiku; Reclamation and fish ponds</p><br>
<p>Eita/Taborio; Abairarang (scout) Is.Abaokoro (Guide) Is. and Taborio Causeway</p><br>
<p>Teaoraereke; Causeway</p><br>
<p>Naanekai-Bairiki causeway, Bairiki wharf and jetty</p><br>
<p>Betio; Sandspit, wharves, jetties</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>South Tarawa is the economic hub of Kiribati, the location of the main port and airport and of most of the State Owned Enterprises and private businesses. Copra produced on the outer islands is processed on Betio, producing copra oil for the international market and other products which are sold locally. There is also a fish processing plant producing tuna for export. However imports far outweigh exports, and most households on South Tarawa rely on Government employment and remittances from relatives working overseas for their income. Unemployment and under-employment are a serious problem; in 2010 only 34% of urban adults (over 15) were engaged in cash work; the remaining two-thirds are either out of the labour force, unemployed or engaged in subsistence activities. Young people are especially likely to be unemployed.</p><br>
<h2>Visiting South Tarawa</h2><br>
<h3>Transport</h3><br>
<p>Fiji Airways flies to Bonriki International Airport on South Tarawa twice a week from Nadi, on Mondays and Thursdays.</p><br>
<h3>Accommodation</h3><br>
<p>There is a range of accommodation available for visitors and for those working short term in South Tarawa, and details are available from Tourism Kiribati.</p><br>
<p>Vindö is a large, fairly densely populated island in Stockholm County, Svealand, Sweden, in the Stockholm archipelago, between Värmdö and Kanholmsfjärden. The island is cut into by several deep bays, and linked by isthmus to Djurö to the south and Skarpö to the east. Between Vindö-Djurö and Värmdölandet goes a fairway by Vindöström and Simpströmmen.</p><br>
<p>On the north Vindö are lake Vämlingen joined by the Baltic Sea by Oscar Canal, named after King Oscar II. The king liked to fish for perch in the lake at the time, the Royal Swedish Yacht Club (KSSS) operated in Sollenkroka Fladen (before they moved to Santahamina).</p><br>
<p>Carl Anton sings about Vindö in "Överbyvals," where the island&#39;s beauty during summer is praised.</p><br>
<p>Goat Rocks is an extinct stratovolcano in the Cascade Range, located between Mount Rainier and Mount Adams in southern Washington, in the United States. Part of the Cascade Volcanoes, it was formed by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the western edge of the North American Plate. The volcano was active from 3.2 million years ago until eruptions ceased between 1 and 0.5 million years ago. Throughout its complex eruptive history, volcanism shifted from silicic explosive eruptions to voluminous, mafic activity.</p><br>
<p>The volcano and the surrounding Goat Rocks Wilderness, established in 1964, are named after the numerous mountain goats which live in the area. The variable climate of the wilderness area supports a host of wildlife, including marmots, pikas, deer, and elk. Various peaks within the wilderness can be climbed or scrambled, and other activities such as hiking are permitted. The area is rife with minerals and resources, including coal, cobalt, copper, and base metals.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Goats Rocks volcano is located in southern Washington, 113 km west of Yakima, at latitude 46.50° N and longitude 121.45° W. This region of the Cascades was originally occupied by Native Americans, who hunted and fished in its vicinity and used its trails as trade routes. Goat Rocks lies in a zone of intermittent volcanism which has produced many small volcanic vents, also including the Mount Adams volcanic field and Indian Heaven. Situated in the eastern portion of the Cascade Range, Goat Rocks lies at the northwest corner of the Klickitat River basin. As a member of the Cascade Volcanoes, Goat Rocks was produced by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca plate under the western edge of the continental North American Plate. This fault, known as the Cascadia subduction zone, lacks the deep oceanic trench usually found at convergent plate boundaries, which can probably be explained by its slow rate of subduction. According to the United States Geological Survey, the Nazca and North American plates converge at a rate of 3 cm to 4 cm each year, just half of their convergence rate as recently as 7 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The Cascade Volcanoes in Washington are restricted to four belts; Goat Rocks forms one segment of the north–south trending Mount Adams belt that also incorporates Tumac Mountain, Adams, and the King Mountain Fissure Zone. Of the four Cascade arcs, this belt contains the second most volcanoes, and its volcanoes are predominantly made of calc-alkalic to tholeiitic to basaltic andesite lava. Goats Rocks and its immediate vicinity are underlain by pre-Tertiary greywacke and argillite, and these deposits are cut by several prominent northward-trending faults. Overlaying these deposits are Cenozoic volcanic rocks, including the thick, Eocene-aged Ohanapecosh Formation, comprised by chemically altered basalt and andesite lava flows and bedded andesite and dacite volcaniclastic rock. In turn, the Stevens Ridge Formation overlies the Ohanapecosh layer, featuring quartz-bearing silicic tuff, rhyolite, and other volcaniclastic rocks. Under both layers is the Russell Ranch Formation, 2,298 m to 3,048 m in thickness, which contains deposits of lapilli and tuff hinting at a caldera, although geologists have failed to identify clear evidence for the formation of a caldera in this zone.</p><br>
<p>Together with Mount Adams, Mount Rainier, and Mount St. Helens, the Goat Rocks volcano is part of a triangle of volcanoes, an arrangement not found elsewhere in the Cascades. This may be related to a mid-crust zone with abnormally high electrical conductivity, the Southern Washington Cascades Conductor (SWCC), which is not well understood by geologists. Scientists from the United States Geodynamics Committee hypothesized in 1994 that this anomaly is associated with the thrust of a large deposit of sedimentary rock against a continental margin. However, Hill et al. (2009) dismiss this view as it proves inconsistent with maps made from magnetotelluric readings of the area. Instead, they propose that the anomaly is linked to the region&#39;s volcanism, which has caused partial melting of the crust.</p><br>
<p>The oldest Cascade stratovolcano formed after the Columbia River Basalt Group, Goat Rocks is roughly equal in volume to Mount St. Helens and smaller in volume than Mount Baker, at approximately 60 km3. Rough estimates place the composition of the volcano as 40% tuff and breccia. The remains of its lava flows can be found in the Tieton, Klickitat, and Cispus river valleys, their elevation reversed by erosion to make them resemble ridges. These flows have been thoroughly eroded, but testify to the volcano&#39;s previous size.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciation</h3><br>
<p>Although it may have once been a towering stratovolcano, Goat Rocks has undergone extensive erosion since its extinction. Once eruptions ceased, the ongoing forces of glacial erosion, as well as hydrothermal alteration of the volcano&#39;s interior, stripped away layers of volcanic ash deposits and lava flows, Nearly all the remaining volcanic debris has been partially covered by a younger layer of rock.</p><br>
<p>The Goat Rocks area is notable for its extensive glaciers, despite its modest elevation and southerly location relative to the rest of the Washington Cascades. Four major glaciers mantle the north and northeast slopes of the peaks: Conrad Glacier, McCall Glacier, Meade Glacier, and Packwood Glacier, along with numerous smaller permanent snowfields.</p><br>
<h3>Major peaks in the Goat Rocks vicinity</h3><br>
<p>The elevation of the Goat Rocks volcano and its immediate vicinity varies from 914 m to 2,500 m at its highest point, Gilbert Peak. Because of extensive glaciation and erosion, the peaks surrounding Goat Rocks are at most moderate in height.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Goat Rocks is a stratovolcano with a somewhat complicated eruptive history. It first became active approximately 3.2 million years ago during the Pliocene epoch, undergoing explosive eruptions that ejected silicic lava with highly felsic rocks like rhyolite. One of these events produced 650 m of tuff that remains, exposed, on the east flank of the existing mountain. 3 million years ago Goat Rocks shifted to mafic volcanism, erupting olivine and basalt. As eruptions continued into the Pleistocene epoch, the lava flows became increasingly andesitic, containing mostly pyroxene with phenocrysts as well as hornblende minerals. These andesitic flows formed the volcanos major edifice between roughly 2.5 and 0.5 million years ago, which may have resembled contemporary Mount Rainier. At this point in time, Goat Rockss eruptions had very high volumes and extended far from the volcano, possibly because multiple satellite vents contributed to eruptions. Approximately 1 million years ago, Goat Rocks generated an andesitic lava flow extending 80 km down the Naches and Tieton Rivers, which has been recognized as the longest andesite flow on Earth. Many of the flows immediately surrounding the volcano have since been cut by intrusive dikes, which form a radial arrangement around the volcano&#39;s core. As erosion occurred on a large scale, the volcano remained active, producing more hornblende andesite lava flows. Eruptive activity continued at Old Snowy Mountain into the middle to late Pleistocene, yielding hornblende andesite lava flows that were subsequently glaciated in the Cispus River valley; whether Old Snowy Mountain is a vent of Goat Rocks or an independent volcano remains unclear. Hornblende andesite can also be found on top of the highest point in Goat Rocks, Gilbert Peak.</p><br>
<p>Hogback Mountain, a shield volcano north of Goat Rocks and south of White Pass, was identified by Siebert et al. (2010) as a satellite vent of Goat Rocks. Rising 700 m in elevation, it erupted more than 200 m of olivine basalt and basaltic andesite from the end of the Pliocene through the early Pleistocene. Eruptions from Goat Rocks formed a spread-out volcanic field populated by small lava domes to the north, with dimensions of 29.9 km by 15 km.</p><br>
<p>Goat Rocks is now classified as an extinct volcano, as its most recent eruptive activity was during the Pleistocene.</p><br>
<h2>Wilderness</h2><br>
<p>Land surrounding Goat Rocks was first protected by the United States Department of Agriculture in February 1931, when approximately 18,009 hectare was set aside for preservation. In 1935, this was increased to 29,315 hectare of land, then to 33,459 hectare in 1940. In 1964, the United States Congress created the Goats Rock Wilderness as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System, delegating its management to the United States Forest Service. Since additional land was incorporated in 1984, it now encompasses 43,745 hectare between Mount Rainier and Mount Adams, straddling the Gifford Pinchot and Okanogan-Wenatchee national forests. It is bordered by the Yakama Indian Reservation to the southeast.</p><br>
<p>The wilderness ranges from 914 to 2500 m in elevation, featuring alpine tundras with glaciers, small lakes, and ponds, as well as 15 different routes that amount to 193 km of trails. One of these trails constitutes the highest segment of the famous Pacific Crest Trail in Washington, running for 50 km north–south through the middle of the wilderness area. Because this route is located at such a high elevation, its hikers may experience violent storms that could be dangerous for unprepared parties. Much of the wilderness is located above the timberline, offering views of alpine scenery.</p><br>
<h3>Climate and wildlife</h3><br>
<p>Weather within the Wilderness varies due to the mountains acting as a barrier for both weather and temperature. The Cascade Range mountains prevent wet storms from moving, forcing air to rise and then cool. This cooling air cannot hold as much moisture, causing heavy precipitation (up to 381 cm in rainfall annually) on the western flanks of the mountains, which leads to extensive forestation. Snowfall typically totals more than 8 m annually, amounting to snow still being present as late as July or August. In warmer months, melted snow runs off into lakes, keeping them especially full. Because the mountains are so tall, storm clouds may get stuck even as the rest of the storm moves onward, leading to snowstorms and freezing temperatures year-round. In extreme conditions, these storm cells might endanger hikers by means of strong winds, fog, snow, and rain that can potentially make hiking nearly impossible. On the eastern sides of the mountains, air warms as it drops, producing Chinook winds, considerably lower precipitation, and less forested landscapes. Because of these conditions, temperatures on the western sides of mountains are steady, whereas temperatures on the eastern flanks fluctuate wildly.</p><br>
<p>Goat Rocks obtained its name from a population of mountain goats that can be observed around the mountain. Other fauna include marmots and pikas at high elevations. Deer and elk can be found below the timberline, including mule deer, mule deer-black-tailed hybrids, Roosevelt elk, and Rocky Mountain elk that were introduced from Yellowstone National Park in 1913. Black-tailed deer are especially common.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing and recreation</h3><br>
<p>Old Snowy Mountain and Gilbert Peak, two of Goat Rocks&#39;s peaks, are frequented by hikers and mountaineers. Both are considered remote summits, although Old Snowy Mountain is the more accessible of the two. This, coupled with its easier ascent, makes Old Snowy Mountain the more popular climb. There are several routes up the mountain, which take 5–6 hours, rising 1,097 m in elevation. Running for 23 km round-trip, Old Snowy can be scrambled or climbed using glaciers, although a trail exists. From the summit, mountaineers can see Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in the distance.</p><br>
<p>The climb up Gilbert Peak was first completed by Fred G. Plummer in 1899. It also rises 1,097 m in elevation, lasting 6–8 hours and running for 26 km round-trip. Because the routes are longer and more technically challenging due to loose rock, scrambling Gilbert is generally considered more difficult than Old Snowy Mountain. Most climbers opt to mount Gilbert early in the climbing season when snow levels are low.</p><br>
<p>Recreational activities permitted by the Forest Service at the Wilderness include day hiking, horse riding, and backpacking.</p><br>
<h3>Resources</h3><br>
<p>In terms of mineral resources, the Goat Rocks area can be divided into three segments, each rich with certain minerals. The first two are named Packwood Glacier–McCall Basin and Glacier Basin, and are located near past volcanic vents. These areas exhibit anomalous levels of cobalt, copper, lead, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc, well-dispersed levels of pyrite, and sporadic concentrations of silver. Area C corresponds to the Clear Fork of the Cowlitz River and lies along the area of contact between Goat Rocks volcano and older volcanoes to the east. It is distinct from the other two study areas, featuring anomalous amounts of barium, cobalt, copper, and manganese, as well as smaller quantities of lead, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc. Other minerals found in Area C include barite, boron, cinnabar, mercury, pyrite, and tin in concentrates taken from stream-sediment. The water has high concentrations of chlorine, copper, fluorine, and molybdenum, and altered rocks contain arsenic, lead, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc at especially high levels. The Goat Rocks vicinity seems to offer large base metal deposits. Outside the area studied, coal has been identified at the Packwood and Cowlitz fields, and building stones and gravel are being quarried to the north and west of the volcano. The Goat Rocks area&#39;s potential resources for oil and gas remain unidentified. Because no volcanic activity has occurred during the Holocene (within the past 11,700 years), Goat Rocks has very little potential for geothermal resources.</p><br>
<p>Claims to three lode mines and a single coal mine were made within the Goat Rocks Wilderness, but the United States Bureau of Mines has no record of production from any of these claims. Historically, two claims have actually been staked in the area, the Mosquito lode near Walupt Lake in 1934, and later, the Glacier lode near Packwood Glacier in 1939. Neither show evidence of assessment work, and both deposits are now abandoned. Miners may have been drawn to the area by news of lode deposits containing gold, silver, and copper along breccia and shear zones to the north of the wilderness area.</p><br>
<p>Iliamna Lake or Lake Iliamna  is a lake in southwest Alaska, at the north end of the Alaska Peninsula, between Kvichak Bay and Cook Inlet, about 100 mi west of Seldovia, Alaska.</p><br>
<p>It is the largest lake in Alaska, third largest lake entirely in the United States, and twenty-fourth in North America. (While all five Great Lakes are considerably larger, only Lake Michigan lies completely within US territory.) Covering about 2,600 km² (1,000 sq. miles), Iliamna Lake is 77 mi long and up to 22 mi wide, with a maximum depth of 988 ft. Through the Kvichak River, its waters drain into Bristol Bay.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Name</h3><br>
<p>The lake is marked as Oz Bol Ilyamna (Big Ilyamna Lake) on the Russian Hydrographical Departments Chart 1455, published in 1852. On an earlier Russian map, from 1802, the lake was named Oz Shelekhovo&#39; (Lake Shelekov) after Russian explorer Grigory Shelekhov. According to G.C. Martin, of the United States Geological Survey, Iliamna is said to be "the name of a mythical great blackfish supposed to inhabit this lake, which bites holes in the bidarkas of bad natives."</p><br>
<p>The name Iliamna is derived from the Inland Denaina Athabascan name Nila Vena, which means islands lake.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Williamsport-Pile Bay Road portage</h3><br>
<p>Originally constructed by the Alaska Road Commission during the mid 1930s, the Williamsport-Pile Bay Road is a utility-class road maintained by the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities. Connecting Pile Bay on the lakes northeast side with Williamsport, a tiny settlement on the Iliamna Bay of Cook Inlet (about 100 mi southwest of Homer), the road is 15.5 mi long and one lane wide with four bridges. The Williamsport-Pile Bay Road is maintained as a gravel utility road for the purpose of hauling boats and freight, and is not intended for general purpose use. The road allows boats small enough to be hauled across the roads bridges an opportunity to portage from Cook Inlet to Bristol Bay, saving a trip on the open ocean which involves traveling around the Alaska Peninsula. For this and other reasons, the road is also believed to significantly reduce fuel costs for the Lake Iliamna and Bristol Bay regions.</p><br>
<h3>Populated places</h3><br>
<p>The villages of Iliamna, Newhalen, Kokhanok, Pedro Bay, Pope-Vannoy Landing and Igiugig lie on the shores of Iliamna Lake.</p><br>
<h3>Flora and fauna</h3><br>
<p>Iliamna Lake is noted for its sport fishing. The three primary targets of anglers in the lake are trout, salmon, and grayling. August through September is prime time for catching fat rainbow trout, some of which exceed 28 inches long. The Kvichak River Policy (the drainage of Lake Iliamna) is catch and release on trout (and all other native fish), but not on salmon. Sockeye (red) and Chinook (king) salmon are consistently found in the lake and are open to harvest under Alaska Department of Fish and Game Regulations. Lake Iliamna also has one of few populations of freshwater seals in the world. It also serves as a nursery for the largest red salmon run in the world. Red salmon spend half of their 5-year lifespan in fresh water. This is longer than any other species of salmon.</p><br>
<h4>Monster legend</h4><br>
<p>Local residents have a number of stories about the alleged Iliamna Lake Monster, an aquatic creature much like the rumored Loch Ness Monster.</p><br>
<p>Speculation exists that reported sightings may be an undocumented population of white sturgeon. If true, this would be the most northerly population known to exist, just a few hundred miles from the Arctic Circle. Jeremy Wade, presenter of Animal Planet&#39;s River Monsters is among those who speculate these sightings of a reputed "monster" is a white sturgeon.</p><br>
<p>Others believe that it is a Pacific sleeper shark. Evidence of this is corroborated by a 2012 YouTube video that shows a smaller Pacific sleeper shark in Lake Iliamna.</p><br>
<p>Paestum was a major ancient Greek city on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea in Magna Graecia . The ruins of Paestum are famous for their three ancient Greek temples in the Doric order, dating from about 600 to 450 BC, which are in a very good state of preservation. The city walls and amphitheatre are largely intact, and the bottom of the walls of many other structures remain, as well as paved roads. The site is open to the public, and there is a modern national museum within it, which also contains the finds from the associated Greek site of Foce del Sele.</p><br>
<p>After its foundation by Greek colonists under the name of Poseidonia (Ποσειδωνία) it was eventually conquered by the local Lucanians and later the Romans. The Lucanians renamed it to Paistos and the Romans gave the city its current name. As Pesto or Paestum, the town became a bishopric (now only titular), but it was abandoned in the Early Middle Ages, and left undisturbed and largely forgotten until the eighteenth century.</p><br>
<p>Today the remains of the city are found in the modern frazione of Paestum, which is part of the comune of Capaccio in the Province of Salerno, Campania, Italy. The modern settlement, directly to the south of the archaeological site, is a popular seaside resort, with long sandy beaches.</p><br>
<h2>Ancient remains</h2><br>
<p>Much the most celebrated features of the site today are the three large temples in the Archaic version of the Greek Doric order, dating from about 550 to 450 BC. All are typical of the period, with massive colonnades having a very pronounced entasis (widening as they go down), and very wide capitals resembling upturned mushrooms. Above the columns, only the second Temple of Hera retains most of its entablature, the other two having only the architrave in place.</p><br>
<p>These were dedicated to Hera, Athena, and Poseidon (Juno, Minerva, and Neptune to the Romans), although previously they often have been identified otherwise, for example, as a basilica and a temple of Ceres (Greek Demeter), after eighteenth-century arguments. The two temples of Hera are right next to each other, while the Temple of Athena is on the other side of the town center. There were other temples, both Greek and Roman, which are far less well-preserved. Paestum is far from any sources of good marble. The three main temples had few stone reliefs, perhaps using painting instead. Painted terracotta was for some detailed parts of the structure. The large pieces of terracotta that have survived are in the museum.</p><br>
<p>The whole ancient city of Paestum covers an area of approximately 120 hectares. It is only the 25 hectares that contain the three main temples and the other main buildings that have been excavated. The other 95 hectares remain on private land and have not been excavated. The city is surrounded by defensive walls that still stand. The walls are approximately 4750 m long, 5 – 7 m thick and 15 m high. Positioned along the wall are 24 square and round towers. There may have been as many as 28, but some of them were destroyed during the construction of a highway during the eighteenth century that effectively cut the site in two.</p><br>
<p>The central area is completely clear of modern buildings and always has been largely so, since the Middle Ages. Although much stone has been stripped from the site, large numbers of buildings remain detectable by their footings or the lower parts of their walls, and the main roads remain paved. A low-built heroon or shrine memorial to an unknown local hero survived intact; the contents are in the museum. Numerous tombs have been excavated outside the walls.</p><br>
<h3>The three Greek Temples</h3><br>
<p>The first Temple of Hera, built around 550 BC by the Greek colonists, is the oldest surviving temple in Paestum. Eighteenth-century archaeologists named it "The Basilica" because some mistakenly believed it to be a Roman building. (The original Roman basilica was essentially a civic form of building, before the basilica plan was adopted by the Early Christians for churches.)</p><br>
<p>Inscriptions and terracotta statuettes revealed that the goddess worshiped here was Hera. Later, an altar was unearthed in front of the temple, in the open-air site usual for a Greek altar. The faithful could attend rites and sacrifices without entering the cella.</p><br>
<p>The columns have a very strong entasis or curvature down their length, an indication of an early date of construction. The temple is wider than most Greek temples, probably because there are two doors and a row of seven columns running centrally inside the cella or inner sanctuary, an unusual feature. This may reflect a dual dedication of the temple. Having an odd number of columns, here nine, across the shorter sides also is very unusual; there are eighteen columns along the longer sides. This was possible, or necessary, because of the two doors, so that neither has a view blocked by a column.</p><br>
<p>The second Temple of Hera was built around 460–450 BC, just north of the first Hera Temple. It was once mistakenly thought to be dedicated to Poseidon. The columns do not have the typical 20 flutes on each column, but have 24 flutes. The Temple of Hera II also has a wider column size and smaller intervals between columns. The temple was also used to worship Zeus and another deity, whose identity is unknown. There are visible on the east side the remains of two altars, one large and one smaller. The smaller one is a Roman addition, built when a road leading to a Roman forum was cut through the larger one. It also is possible that the temple originally was dedicated to both Hera and Poseidon; some offertory statues found around the larger altar are thought to demonstrate this identification.</p><br>
<p>On the highest point of the town, some way from the Hera Temples and north of the center of the ancient settlement, is the Temple of Athena. It was built around 500 BC, and was for some time incorrectly thought to have been dedicated to Ceres. The architecture is transitional, being partly in the Ionic style and partly early Doric. Three medieval Christian tombs in the floor show that the temple was at one time used as a Christian church.</p><br>
<p>All three Greek temples have undergone some renovation and repair in recent years.</p><br>
<h3>Other archaeological features</h3><br>
<p>In the central part of the complex is the Roman Forum, thought to have been built on the site of the preceding Greek agora. On the north side of the forum is a small Roman temple, dated to 200 BC. It was dedicated to the Capitoline Triad, Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva.</p><br>
<p>To the north-east of the forum is the amphitheater. This is of normal Roman pattern, although much smaller than later examples. Only the western half is visible; in 1930 AD, a road was built across the site, burying the eastern half. It is said by local inhabitants that the civil engineer responsible was tried, convicted and received a prison sentence for what was described as wanton destruction of a historic site. There is also a small circular council hall (bouleuterion) or assembly space (ekklesiasterion), with seats in tiers. It was probably never roofed, but had a wall around it, perhaps with a small arcade round the inside. This ceased to have a role in Roman times and was filled over.</p><br>
<p>The heroon, close to the forum and the Temple of Athena, probably celebrated the founder of the city, though constructed around a century after the death of this unnamed figure. It was a low tumulus with a walled rectangular enclosure faced with large stones around it. When it was excavated in 1954 a low stone chamber with a pitched roof was discovered at the centre, half below the surrounding ground leval and half above. This contained several large, rare, and splendid bronze vessels, perhaps not locally-made, and a large Athenian pottery black-figure amphora of about 520–500 BC. The bronze vessels had traces of honey inside. These are all now in the museum.</p><br>
<p>Just south of the city walls, at a site still called Santa Venera, a series of small terracotta offertory molded statuettes of a standing nude woman wearing the polos headdress of Anatolian and Syrian goddesses, which were dated to the first half of the sixth century BC, were found in the sanctuary. Other similar ones have been excavated at other Paestum sanctuaries during excavations in the 1980s. The figure is highly unusual in the Western Mediterranean. The open-air temenos was established at the start of Greek occupation: a temple on the site was not built until the early fifth century BC. A nude goddess is a figure alien to Greek culture before the famous Cnidian Aphrodite by Praxiteles in the fourth century: iconographic analogies must be sought in Phoenician Astarte and the Cypriote Aphrodite. "In places where the Greeks and Phoenicians came in contact with one another, there is often an overlapping in the persona of the two deities," Rebecca Miller Ammerman has explained (Ammerman 1991), in identifying the cult at the site as that of Phoenician Astarte or Cypriot Aphrodite.</p><br>
<p>Inscriptions make clear that during Roman times, the cult was reserved to Venus.</p><br>
<h3>Painted tombs</h3><br>
<p>Paestum also is renowned for its painted tombs, mainly belonging to the period of Lucanian rule, while only one of them dates to the Greek period. However, this is the Tomb of the Diver (Italian: Tomba del tuffatore), which is the most famous. It is named after the enigmatic scene, depicted on the underside of the covering slab, of a young man diving into a stream of water. It dates to the first half of the fifth century BC (about 470 BC), the Golden Age of the Greek town. It was found, on 3 June 1968, in a small necropolis some 1.5 km south of the ancient walls. The paintings have now been transferred to the museum. The tomb is painted with the true fresco technique and its importance lies in being "the only example of Greek painting with figured scenes dating from the Orientalizing, Archaic, or Classical periods to survive in its entirety. Among the thousands of Greek tombs known from this time (roughly 700–400 BC), this is the only one found to have been decorated with frescoes of human subjects."</p><br>
<p>The remaining four walls of the tomb are occupied by symposium-related scenes, an iconography far more familiar from Greek pottery than the diving scene. All the five frescoes are displayed in the museum, together with other cycles from Lucanian painted tombs. In contrast to earlier Greek tomb paintings, these later scenes have many figures and a high proportion of scenes including horses and equestrian sports.</p><br>
<h3>Sele complex</h3><br>
<p>A few kilometres from Paestum there was a temple complex at the mouth of the Sele river (Foce del Sele in Italian) dedicated to Hera. The temple is now all but destroyed, and little remains of several other buildings. About 70 of the sixth-century BC Archaic metope relief panels on the temple and another building at the site were recovered, however. These fall into two groups, the earlier of which shows the story of the life of Heracles in 38 surviving reliefs; the later group, of about 510 BC, shows pairs of running women. The earlier cycle forms the centrepiece of the Paestum museum, set in place around walls of the original height. At the site there is a museo narrante with video displays, but no original artefacts.</p><br>
<h3>Art from Paestum</h3><br>
<p>The Paestum archaeological museum holds the largest collection, but there are many significant pieces that were removed from the site before modern controls, and they are in a number of collections around the world. The National Archaeological Museum of Spain in Madrid has especially rich holdings, with two important Imperial Roman statues and many, very fine vases (see below). Other pieces, mostly painted pottery, are in the Louvre, the Antikensammlung Berlin, and other museums in Europe and America.</p><br>
<p>In the case of painted pottery, a number of individual artists, especially from the fourth century BC, have been identified and given notnames whose work has been found in tombs around the city and the region, and sometimes further afield. It has been presumed that these artists were based in the city.</p><br>
<h3>National Archaeological Museum at Paestum</h3><br>
<p>The highlights of the national museum at Paestum are mentioned above: the Sele metopes, the Tomb of the Diver, and the contents of the Heroon. The displays also show a number of large painted terracotta architectural fragments from the temples and other buildings, many Greek terracotta figurines, and incomplete larger terracotta statues, and pottery including painted vases.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Foundation</h3><br>
<p>According to Strabo the city was founded as Poseidonia (named after the Greek deity of the sea) by Greek Achaeans from Sybaris. The colonists had built fortifications close to the sea, but then decided to found the city farther inland at a higher elevation. The fortifications might have been built to the south of Poseidonia on the promontory where Agropoli is now. According to the historical tradition the sanctuary to Poseidon was located there, after which the city would have been named. The date of Poseidonia&#39;s founding is not given by ancient sources, but the archaeological evidence gives a date of approximately 600 BC.</p><br>
<p>Alternatively in fact, the Sybarites may have been Troezenians. Aristotle wrote that a group of Troezenians was expelled from Sybaris by the Achaeans after their joint founding of that city. Gaius Julius Solinus calls Paestum a Dorian colony and Strabo mentions that Troezen once was called Poseidonia. As a consequence it has been argued that Paestum was founded by the Troezenians referred to by Aristotle. Another hypothesis is that the Sybarites were aided by Dorians in their founding of Poseidonia.</p><br>
<h3>Greek period</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence from Paestum&#39;s first centuries indicates the building of roads, temples, and other features of a growing city. Coinage, architecture, and molded votive figurines all attest to close relations maintained with Metaponto in the sixth and fifth centuries.</p><br>
<p>It is presumed that Poseidonia harbored refugees from its mother city, Sybaris, when that city was conquered by Croton in 510 BC. In the early fifth century, Poseidonia&#39;s coins adopted the Achaean weight standard and the bull seen on Sybarite coins. A. J. Graham thinks it was plausible that the number of refugees was large enough for some kind of synoecism to have occurred between the Poseidonians and the Sybarites, possibly in the form of a sympolity.</p><br>
<p>Poseidonia might have had a major share in a new foundation of Sybaris, which lasted from 452/1 BC until 446/5 BC. This is suggested by the great resemblance of the coins of Sybaris to those of Poseidonia during this period. Possibly a treaty of friendship between Sybaris, its allies, and the Serdaioi (an unknown people) dates to this new foundation, because Poseidonia was the guarantor of this treaty.</p><br>
<h3>Lucanian period</h3><br>
<p>It is not until the end of the fifth century BC that the city is mentioned, when according to Strabo, the city was conquered by the Lucanians. From the archaeological evidence it appears that the two cultures, Greek and Oscan, were able to thrive alongside one another.</p><br>
<h3>Roman period and abandonment</h3><br>
<p>What is known is it later became the Roman city of Paestum in 273 BC after the Graeco-Italian Poseidonians sided king Pyrrhus of Epirus, who lost in his war against republican Rome during the first quarter of the third century BC.</p><br>
<p>During the Carthaginian invasion of Italy by Hannibal, the city remained faithful to Rome and afterward, was granted special favours such as the minting of its own coinage. The city continued to prosper during the Roman imperial period and became a bishopric as the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pesto around 400 AD.</p><br>
<p>It started to go into decline between the fourth and seventh centuries AD, and was abandoned during the Middle Ages. The bishopric was suppressed in 1100. Like Naples and most of the surrounding region, the inhabitants presumably spoke a Greek dialect throughout its history. The decline and desertion were probably due to changes in local land drainage patterns, leading to swampy malarial conditions. Raids by "Saracen" pirates and slavers also may have been a deciding factor. The remaining population seems to have moved to the more easily defended cliff-top settlement at Agropoli (i.e. "acropolis" or "citadel" in Greek), a few kilometres away, although this settlement became a base for Muslim raiders for a period. The Paestum site became overgrown and largely forgotten, although some stone spolia were collected and used in Salerno Cathedral by Robert Guiscard (d. 1085).</p><br>
<h2>Rediscovery</h2><br>
<p>Despite stray mentions such as that in the history of Pietro Summonte in 1524, who correctly identified the three Doric temples as such, its ruins only came to wide notice again in the eighteenth century, following the rediscovery of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and during the construction of a new coastal road south from Naples. The modern settlement had begun to revive by at least the sixteenth century, to the side of the ancient ruins. After a complicated start, the rediscovery of the three relatively easily accessible, and early, Greek temples created huge interest throughout Europe. Prints of artworks by Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1778) and others were widely circulated. The complete and relatively simple form of the temples became influential in early Greek Revival architecture.</p><br>
<p>In 1740 a proposal was made, but not executed, to remove columns for the new Palace of Capodimonte in Naples. Initially, eighteenth-century savants doubted that the structures had been temples, and it was suggested variously, that they included a gymnasium, a public basilica or hall, or a "portico". There also was controversy and misunderstanding of their cultural background. Alessio Simmaco Mazzocchi, a clergyman and antiquarian, "the founder of the modern study of Magna Graecia" (the ancient Greeks in Italy), thought they were Etruscan, in line with his theories that Greek colonists merely had joined existing cultures in Italy, founded by peoples from farther east. He derived the etymology of "Poseidonia" from an invented Phoenician sea deity.</p><br>
<p>The first modern published account of the ruins was Les Ruines de Paestum in 1764, by G. P. M. Dumont, who had been taken to the site in 1750, along with the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot, by Count Gazzola, an engineer for the government in Naples. Gazzola had drawn or commissioned measured drawings, to which Dumont added his own, as well as, more artistic plates. There was an expanded edition in 1769, the same year when a still more extensive account was published by the Englishman Thomas Major. By 1774 there were nine different illustrated publications on the site.</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>On September 9, 1943, Paestum was the location of the landing beaches of the USA 36th Infantry Division during the Allied invasion of Italy. German forces resisted the landings from the outset, causing heavy fighting within and around the town. Combat persisted around the town for nine days before the Germans withdrew to the north. The Allied forces set up their Red Cross first aid tents in, and around, the temples since the Temples were "off limits" to bombing by both sides.</p><br>
<h2>Coins</h2><br>
<p>The coins of Paestum begin about 550 BC. These early issues were perhaps all festival coins. They usually have Poseidon with upraised trident. Issues continue until the reign of Tiberius. For unknown reasons Paestum alone of all the smaller Italian mints, was allowed to continue minting bronze coins by a Senatorial decree of about 89 BC, after this had been centralized. Later coins carry "P. S. S. C.", standing for "Paesti Signatum Senatus Consulto" to reflect this.</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>Gate to the Sea, a historical novel by Bryher published in 1958, portrays the flight of Harmonia, a Greek high priestess, from Poseidonia (Paestum), where the Greek inhabitants have been enslaved and culturally dominated by the Lucani since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC</p><br>
<p>In the novel My Antonia by Willa Cather, the professor Gaston Cleric contracts a fever after spending the night outdoors admiring "the sea temples at Paestum"</p><br>
<p>In the film Mare Nostrum (film) by Rex Ingram (director), they visit Paestum</p><br>
<p>In the 2007 video game Medal of Honor: Airborne, the second mission takes place in Paestum</p><br>
<p>Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)</p><br>
<p>Angel Mounds State Historic Site  is located on the Ohio River in Vanderburgh and Warrick counties in the southwestern corner of the USA state of Indiana. It is the site of a town constructed and occupied from 1100 AD to 1450 AD as one of the farthest northeastern expressions of the Mississippian culture. Just upriver of the confluence of the Green and Ohio rivers, it is located 8 miles  southeast of present-day Evansville. It is administered by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Indiana State Museums and Historic Sites as one of 16 state museums and historic sites.</p><br>
<p>In 1964 this major complex of earthworks was designated a National Historic Landmark because of its significance. It is named after the Angel family who, from the mid-19th century to 1938, owned the property on which it is located.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For thousands of years, southwestern Indiana was home to successive cultures of Native Americans, who settled near the rivers and used them for travel and trade.</p><br>
<p>Beginning after 1000 AD, people of the widespread Mississippian culture built a town at this site, covering 100 acre and situated on a large, terraced mound near the river. Today, Angel Mounds State Historic Site is nationally recognized as one of the best-preserved prehistoric Native American sites in the United States. It was given National Historic Landmark status as part of this recognition. This site is the most northeastern of the Mississippian culture, which had sites throughout the river valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries, such as the Ohio River, and ranging into North Carolina and as far south as Mississippi. Continuing excavations at the site reveal new elements of the complex society.</p><br>
<p>From 1100 AD to 1450 AD, people of the Middle Mississippian culture built and lived in a town on this site. They were known for building characteristic earthwork mounds, with shapes including platform, conical and ridgetop (as seen at Cahokia.) Angel Mounds was a chiefdom (the base of the chief) and the regional center of a large residential and agricultural community that extended for several miles around. They built a major earthwork, working with a variety of soils to create a stable mass. The platform mound held their central community. They traded with other chiefdoms and peoples along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. This settlement was the largest-known town of its time in Indiana. Scholars believe the town may have contained as many as 1,000 inhabitants at its peak.</p><br>
<p>Archeologists have used the distinctive pottery produced here and in other satellite communities in this section of the Ohio River valley to define the Angel phase. Archaeologists infer that the smaller communities were politically subordinate to the main site.</p><br>
<p>The people engaged in hunting and farming on the rich bottom lands of the Ohio River. In addition to the mounds they built for ceremonial and cosmological purposes, they constructed a defensive 12 ft-high stockade made of wattle and daub, and punctuated with bastions.</p><br>
<p>The Mississippian people abandoned the site long before European contact. No one knows why the civilization declined, but scholars have speculated that an extended regional drought reduced the maize surpluses that had enabled the concentration of population. In addition, the people may have overhunted, as well as reducing forests by their consumption of wood for the stockade, houses and fires. Archaeologists theorize that with the collapse of the chiefdom by 1450, many of the Angel people had relocated downriver to the confluence of the Ohio and Wabash rivers. A new Late Mississippian cultural group subsequently emerged and have been named by archeologists as the Caborn-Welborn culture.</p><br>
<p>Groups of Shawnee, Miami, and other historical tribes moved into this area from the eastern valley about 1650 AD, well after the Mississippians had abandoned the town at Angel Mounds. In the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, European-American settlers migrated to the area from the east, and settled to farm the land. Much like the Native Americans, they were attracted by the rich soil and temperate growing season. Among these settlers was Mathias Angel, who owned a farmstead on the site of Angel Mounds from 1852 until his death in 1899. His brothers owned adjacent farms, and the land remained in the Angel family until 1938. Angel Mounds State Historic Site is named after this family.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation of the site</h3><br>
<p>In 1938, the Indiana Historical Society purchased 480 acres of the Angel family property to protect the historically valuable site. Eli Lilly, a major business man and philanthropist, donated the money for the purchase. In 1946, the Historical Society gave the property to the State of Indiana. In 1965 it gave the archeological excavation rights to Indiana University, which had been conducting research there since 1945. The original purchase was augmented by Elda Clayton Herts&#39; donation of 20 acres containing an early Woodland mound.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s, WPA workers under the direction of the archeologist Glenn A. Black began scientific excavations during the Great Depression; the project was financed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration. Indiana University has continued archaeological research there since 1945. Preservation and archaeology excavations at Angel Mounds State Historic Site offer a glimpse into this highly developed culture. For 60 years, this living museum has told the story of a major pre-contact Native American culture on the Ohio River.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological work at Angel Mounds is conducted by the Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology at Indiana University. This institution was named after Glenn Albert Black, the archaeologist who conducted most of the excavations at Angel Mounds. He brought the site to national attention. His two-volume study (1967) of the site remains the definitive work. The university holds an annual archeology field school at the site during the summer, with a six-week program of training and work.</p><br>
<p>The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964.</p><br>
<p>In May 2006, researchers discovered a probable pottery-making workshop at the site. This discovery revealed the artistic skills of the Mississippian culture people. Found during the season&#39;s excavation were pottery tools and masses of prepared, slightly fired clay pieces. It appeared to be a kind of production line, with the works awaiting finishing and firing as bowls, jars or figures.</p><br>
<h2>Setting</h2><br>
<p>The Mississippian farmers found this location by the Ohio River ideal for agricultural purposes, as annual spring floods replenished the nutrients in the soil and allowed cultivation of maize. The fertile soil enabled production of surplus crops, which the Mississippian people used for trade and to support a large enough population to develop artisan and craft specialties. The town, which overlooks the Ohio River, became the center of a regional chiefdom.</p><br>
<p>The people planned and constructed the town on the third terrace of an earthen mound, above the area flooded on a regular basis, yet close to the fields. A slough surrounds the town on three sides, making it a virtual island, with the river on the fourth side. When the site was first settled, the slough was deeper and the people kept it clear of brush and trees. The community is on top of a terrace looking south across a narrow channel toward Three Mile Island (present-day Kentucky). The slough and island, which existed during the time Angel Mounds was inhabited, created a quiet backwater suitable for using canoes, collecting water, and bathing. Until near the end of the 19th century, the Ohio River was clear and potable.</p><br>
<h3>Stockade</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological excavation revealed that the town was surrounded by a stockade, with the Ohio River acting as a barrier on the south side. A gateway was placed to the east, about a fourth of the way around from where the eastern flank of the stockade meets the river. A second barrier, a type of picket fence, was set 14 ft outside the stockade. It was designed to slow the attackers as they came into range.</p><br>
<p>In 1972 the park reconstructed part of the stockade, based on archeological evidence. It stands 12&#39; high and is made of wooden posts set 4 feet deep into a narrow trench. The posts are covered with wattle and daub, a loose weaving of sticks covered with a mud-and-grass plaster. The defensive bastions were also reconstructed, which had been built every 10 to 11 ft and projected 11 to 12 ft from the wall. The original people planned the bastions at distances which defenders could cover with arrows or lances, thus protecting the walls from a direct attack.</p><br>
<h2>Mounds</h2><br>
<p>The site includes five large platform mounds and seven smaller mounds surrounding two large plazas. A defensive palisade with bastions surrounded the 40-hectare (99-acre) town.</p><br>
<h3>Central Mound</h3><br>
<p>Mound A, also called the Central Mound, is the highest in the complex. It contains two levels, with a conical mound in the southeast corner. The base mound is 644 ft long and 415 ft wide. Villagers carried 67,785 cubic yards of dirt in baskets from the chute along the south side of the village to create the mound. The lower terrace is 100 ft by 100 ft and is located on the south side of the mound. The upper terrace is 28 ft above the surrounding area and is larger than the lower terrace. It is generally believed that the higher-class members of society would live on the highest mounds, while lower-class members inhabited smaller living spaces.</p><br>
<p>The state constructed a modern stairway ascending the mound to protect it from erosion of pedestrian traffic. Archeological evidence suggests there may have been a log stairway in prehistoric times.</p><br>
<p>Based on reports from early European explorers in the southeastern United States, who encountered active Mississippian culture villages, this mound was likely the residence of the hereditary chief of the town and the surrounding communities. The regional center had associated settlements and hamlets within a 70 mi radius of Angel Mounds.</p><br>
<h2>Kincaid Focus</h2><br>
<p>In the lower Ohio River valley in Illinois, Kentucky, and Indiana, the Mississippian-culture towns of Kincaid, Wickliffe, Tolu, and Angel Mounds have been grouped together into a "Kincaid Focus" set, due to similarities in pottery assemblages and site plans. Most striking are the comparisons between the Kincaid and Angel sites, which include analogous site plans, stylistic similarities in artifacts, and geographic proximity. These connections have led some scholars to hypothesize that the builders and residents were of the same society.</p><br>
<p>The 300-400 year span in which these types of artifacts and sites are found is called the "Angel Phase". It is divided into three subphases:</p><br>
<p>Rare painted and incised sherds of Mississippian culture pottery have been found at all four sites, ranging from less than one percent near Kincaid to about three or four percent of the assemblage at Wickliffe. Some common pottery styles found in these sites include: Angel Negative Painted, Kincaid Negative Painted, and Matthews Incised. This pottery is shell-tempered and ranges from the smoothed surface and coarser temper of Mississippi Ware to the more polished surface and finer temper of Bell Ware.</p><br>
<p>The Old Plank Road is a plank road in Imperial County, California, that was built in 1915 as an east&ndash;west route over the Algodones Dunes. It effectively connected the extreme lower section of Southern California to Arizona and provided the last link in a commercial route between San Diego and Yuma.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Following Los Angeles winning the right to be the western terminus of the transcontinental railroad, San Diegos civic leaders proposed the Plank Road to ensure their city became the hub of Southern California&#39;s road network rather than Los Angeles.</p><br>
<p>Among those promoters was businessman and road builder "Colonel" Ed Fletcher who accepted a challenge from the Los Angeles Examiner to run a road race in October 1912 to determine the best route between Southern California and Phoenix. A reporter with the paper was given a 24-hour head start in Los Angeles; Fletcher would proceed from San Diego. Fletcher elected to traverse the constantly shifting sand dunes using a team of horses to pull his automobile through the sand, and won the race in a seemingly impossible 19.5 hours.</p><br>
<p>Buoyed by the success of the race and with the backing of local newspapers, Fletcher raised the money to pay for 13,000 planks shipped from San Diego to Holtville, California. The first planks were laid on February 14, 1915, with the help of both volunteers and paid labor. The roadbed consisted of two parallel plank tracks, each 25 inches/63.5 cm wide, spiked to wooden crosspieces laid underneath. The total length of the Plank Road was 6.5 miles/10.4 km. Work ended nearly two months later on April 4.</p><br>
<p>Though traffic and maintenance crews who cleared the wooden road with mule-drawn scrapers soon took its toll on the planking, the road was considered a success. In June of 1915, the California State Highway Commission assumed responsibility for the Plank Road as part of the road system linking Southern California with Arizona.</p><br>
<p>For the next ten years, work crews struggled against the elements to keep the Plank Road open. The cost and difficulty of the maintenance coupled with improved road technology — not to mention the incredibly rough ride the planks created and the fact that the road was only wide enough for a single vehicle — meant that the days of the Plank Road were numbered.</p><br>
<p>A new, 20-foot/6-meter-wide road with an asphaltic concrete surface constructed on top of a built-up sand embankment replaced the Old Plank Road upon its opening on August 12, 1926. The same roadway later became displaced by USA Route 80, itself since displaced by Interstate 8.</p><br>
<p>Today, only fragments of the Plank Road remain. They are protected under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land Management. Additionally, the fragments are both a California Historical Landmark and eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Remnants of the Plank Road may be seen at the west end of Grays Well Road, a frontage road south of I-8. A monument to the Plank Road and interpretive display lie approximately three miles/5.4 km west of the Sand Hills interchange. The monument&#39;s largest feature is a 1500-foot/457-meter-long replica of the road created in the early 1970s out of existing fragments.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ontario is a historic fort situated by the City of Oswego, in Oswego County, New York in the United States of America. It is owned by the state of New York and operated as a museum known as Fort Ontario State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and early history</h2><br>
<p>Fort Ontario is located on the east side of the Oswego River on high ground overlooking Lake Ontario.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ontario was one of several forts erected by the British to protect the area around the east end of Lake Ontario. The original Fort Ontario was erected in 1755, during the French and Indian War in order to bolster defenses already in place at Fort Oswego on the opposite side of the river. At that time its name was the "Fort of the Six Nations," but the fort was destroyed by French forces and rebuilt by British forces in 1759.</p><br>
<p>Note: This includes and</p><br>
<p>At the conclusion of Pontiac&#39;s War, Pontiac urged moderation and agreed to travel to New York, where he made a formal treaty with William Johnson at Fort Ontario on July 25, 1766.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War, a detachment from the 3rd New York Regiment destroyed the fort in July, 1778, after the British abandoned it. The British returned and rebuilt the fort in 1782. There was an aborted attack on the fort by Colonel Marinus Willet in 1783. The British held the fort after the war was over until 1796 after the signing of Jay&#39;s Treaty.</p><br>
<h2>Nineteenth century</h2><br>
<p>The fort was attacked and destroyed by British forces during the War of 1812 in the year 1814. After a period of disuse, new construction was undertaken in part because of tensions with Great Britain as well as to check smuggling activities between Canada and the United States.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War the new construction began at the fort because of fear of British help from Canada to the South. Although the fort remained a military base, the fort itself fell into ruin, since funds were used to create more modern quarters outside the fort.</p><br>
<h2>The modern fort</h2><br>
<p>The 2nd Brigade of the USA 1st Infantry Division called Fort Ontario home until the brigade was deactivated on June 1, 1940.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Fort Ontario was home to approximately 982 Jewish refugees, from August 1944 to February 1946. The Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter was the only attempt by the United States to shelter Jewish refugees during the war. After the end of the war the refugees were kept in internment because of disagreements concerning whether or not to allow them to become United States citizens. In January 1946, the decision was made to allow them to become citizens, and by February all of the Jewish refugees were allowed to leave Fort Ontario.</p><br>
<p>The restored fort is open to the public as a state historic site. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. In 2010, Fort Ontario was one of the state-funded historical sites named by Governor David Paterson as being potentially unfunded because of the budget crisis faced by New York State. In response, many of the citizens of Oswego and students of the State University of New York at Oswego have joined together in support of the historical site.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ontario was built with two other forts in the period, Fort George and Fort Oswego.</p><br>
<p>Gossa  is an island in Aukra Municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. The island encompasses most of the municipality and has a ferry connection from Aukrasanden across the Julsundet strait to Hollingen on the mainland. About 80% of the municipal population  is located on the island.</p><br>
<p>The 46.5 km&sup2; island is flat and swampy, but it is well cultivated by farmland wherever possible. There are also some planted forests. The highest point on the island is the 99 m tall Jærmannburet. The largest population centers on the island are Aukrasanden and Varhaugvika on the southeastern side, and Røssøyvågen is located on the west side. Aukra Auto runs bus service on the island.</p><br>
<p>The gas from the Ormen Lange gas field is brought ashore at Nyhamna on the northeastern shore. Here it is processed and pumped through the world&#39;s longest underwater pipeline, the Langeled pipeline, to Easington in the United Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>The Waitakere Ranges are a chain of hills in the Auckland Region, generally running approximately 25 km  from north to south, 25 km west of central Auckland, New Zealand. The maximum elevation within the ranges is 474 m . The ranges and surrounding areas were traditionally known to local Māori as Te Wao Nui o Tiriwa . It is under the jurisdiction of the Auckland Council.</p><br>
<p>The western coastline of the ranges consists of cliffs exceeding 300 m (984 ft), interspersed infrequently with beaches. The rugged upstanding topography is formed from erosion-resistant ancient volcanic conglomerate and lava flows laid down in eruptions from the large Waitakere volcano to the west 12–25 million years ago. The ranges are covered in native forest, most of which is in the process of regeneration since extensive logging and farming in the mid–late 19th and early 20th centuries.</p><br>
<p>In 1894 a group led by Sir Algernon Thomas (the first professor of natural sciences at Auckland University College, now the University of Auckland) persuaded the Auckland City Council to preserve 3,500 acres (14 km) in the Nihotupu area of the ranges as a bush reserve. In 1895 the national Government vested the land, and several other smaller areas of the ranges, in the City Council as "reserves for the conservation of native flora and fauna". The Waitakere Ranges Regional Park now contains about 39,500 acres (160 km). The area is also protected under the Waitakere Ranges Heritage Area Act 2008.</p><br>
<p>Five reservoirs within the ranges supply water to the Auckland region, including the Waitakere Reservoir and the Lower Nihotupu Reservoir. Combined, the reservoirs supply approximately 26% of Auckland&#39;s potable water demand. The ranges receive an average of over 2,000 mm (78.75 inches) of rainfall annually while the corresponding rate in the city is less than half that. As weather systems approach across the Tasman Sea, their path is blocked by the ranges causing a small uplift sufficient to trigger orographic rainfall.</p><br>
<p>The area is home to kauri snails, glowworms and native long-tailed bats. Long-tailed and short-tailed bats are New Zealand’s only native land-based mammals. At the northern end of the ranges, Otakamiro Point is the site of one of New Zealand’s few mainland gannet breeding colonies. In the bush are many indigenous invertebrates, including kauri snail, weta and oviparous velvet worms with 14 pairs of legs, and ovoviviparous species of 15 and 16 pairs of legs in the genus Peripatoides.</p><br>
<p>Some of the ranges&#39; main attractions are: the four popular surf beaches, Piha, Muriwai, Te Henga (Bethells Beach), Karekare; an extensive network of bush walks and tracks; and panoramic views of the east and west coasts and the city. A road, aptly named Scenic Drive, runs a good portion of the length of the ranges from Titirangi to Swanson. The Auckland Regional Council operates an information centre near the Titirangi end.</p><br>
<p>The beaches are typical of west coast beaches north of Taranaki in that they are all black sand beaches. They have a reputation of being dangerous for swimmers due to rips and large swells. Surf Life Saving Clubs patrol designated areas of the four most popular beaches during the summer months. Piha Surf Life Saving Club is the oldest of these, being founded in 1934.</p><br>
<p>On January 11, 2010, the Auckland Regional Council opened the Hillary Trail, a 77 km trail running roughly south-north from the Arataki Visitor Centre to Muriwai through the Waitakere Ranges, named in honour of the New Zealand mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary.</p><br>
<p>The Ark in the Park conservation initiative, a partnership between Forest and Bird and the Auckland Council, is working to reintroduce some of the species made extinct in the Cascades Kauri Park section of the ranges. The project was started in 2003 and now covers 2,300 hectare.</p><br>
<p>The River Dodder  is one of the three main rivers in Dublin, Ireland, the others being the Liffey, of which the Dodder is the largest tributary, and the Tolka.</p><br>
<h2>Course and system</h2><br>
<p>The Dodder rises on the northern slopes of Kippure in the Wicklow Mountains, and is formed from several streams. The headwaters flow from Kippure Ridge, and include, and are often mapped solely as, Tromanallison (Allisons Brook), which is then joined by Mareens Brook, including the Cataract of the Brown Rowan, and then the combined flow meeting the Cot and Slade Brooks.</p><br>
<p>In the river&#39;s valley at Glenasmole are the two Bohernabreena Reservoirs, a major part of the Dublin water supply system.</p><br>
<p>The Dodder is 26 km long. It passes the Dublin suburbs of Tallaght and then Firhouse, travels through Rathfarnham, Templeogue, Rathgar, Milltown, Clonskeagh, Donnybrook, and Ballsbridge, and enters the Liffey near Ringsend, along with the Grand Canal, at Grand Canal Dock.</p><br>
<p>There is a weir just above the bridge at Ballsbridge and the river becomes tidal roughly where the bridge at Lansdowne Road crosses it. The Dodder and the River Tolka are Dublin&#39;s second largest rivers, after the Liffey.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>The Dodder&#39;s main tributaries after Glenasmole, in and prior to which many streams join, are the Jobstown (or Tallaght) Stream, the Owendoher River and its tributary the Whitechurch Stream, the Little Dargle River (with Castle Stream and other tributaries), the Slang or Dundrum River,</p><br>
<h3>Link with the Poddle</h3><br>
<p>The River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in its own right, was linked with the River Dodder from Balrothery Weir, just north of Firhouse, from the 13th century. This link formerly provided much of Dublin City&#39;s water supply. Known as the "City Watercourse," it ran through part of Templeogue. It was partly piped in the mid-20th century, and the connection was later broken by housing development. All that remains now are a small channel from the weir, dead-ending less than 100m from the weir, and some unseen underground flows.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Dodder once supplied many mills, but all are now disused: the de Meones family, who gave their name to the nearby suburb of Rathmines, owned a mill here as early as the mid-fourteenth century. In the sixteenth century much of the surrounding lands belonged to the Talbot family, ancestors of the Talbots of Mount Talbot. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Domvile family, who owned much of Templeogue, effectively controlled access to much of the river, which passed through their estates. At that time the Dodder was the main source of Dublin&#39;s drinking water, and whether fairly or unfairly, the Domviles were accused of using their control of the Dublin water supply to further their own political ends, by threatening to divert its course if their wishes were not met. In fact the legal right to control the course of the river was vested in the Mayor and Corporation of Dublin; this was confirmed by a legal ruling as early as 1527.</p><br>
<h3>Flooding</h3><br>
<p>The river floods some surrounding areas from time to time, as it is too short and shallow to hold the volume of water which pours into it from its tributaries during heavy rain. The River Dodder "has a history of flooding and is known as a "flashy" river with a quick response to rainstorms."</p><br>
<p>A flood on the Dodder in March 1628 claimed the life of Arthur Ussher, Deputy Clerk to the Privy Council of Ireland who was "carried away by the current, nobody being able to succour him, although many persons. his nearest friends, were by on both sides."</p><br>
<p>The two greatest Dodder floods before 1986 occurred on 25 August 1905, and on 3 and 4 August 1931. Hurricane Charley (often spelled "Charlie" in Ireland) passed south of the country on 25 August 1986. In 24 hours, 200mm (almost 8 inches) of rain poured down on Kippure Mountain while 100mm fell on Dublin causing heavy river flooding, including the Dodder in many places, and hardship and loss were experienced.</p><br>
<p>It has long been recognised that the problem of flooding is very difficult to solve, due to the sheer volume of water which pours into the river during periods of heavy rainfall.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>There is an abundance of flora and fauna at the river. However, as the river flows through urban areas, pollution has long been a problem.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Flora along the river is varied. Bryophytes and algae are common with an abundance of filamentous green algae. Crocosmia, Japanese knotweed and Himalayan balsam are the only invasive species recorded along the river.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The Dodder is home to many water-bird species including mallard, grey heron, kingfisher, dipper, coot, moorhen, grey wagtail, common sandpiper and mute swan; the sparrowhawk nests in the trees lining the riverbanks. The red fox is common along the riverbank and the badger and otter have also been seen. In recent years a small feral population of mandarin ducks has become established by the river. It was reported in 2013 that an Irish Wildlife Trust survey found otters living along the Dodder.</p><br>
<p>Fish present in the river include brown trout, sea trout, stone loach, three-spined stickleback and European eel. Atlantic salmon can also be found in the river&#39;s lower course.</p><br>
<p>Atlantic salmon and lamprey eels are expected to return to most of the river after a more than 200-year absence pending the construction of fish ladders</p><br>
<h4>Fishing and angling</h4><br>
<p>The Dodder is a popular river for fishing and angling amongst Dubliners. The fishing season is open between 17 March and 30 September.</p><br>
<h2>Pictures</h2><br>
